Valid Names Results
Unaspis euonymi (Comstock, 1881) (Diaspididae: Unaspis)Nomenclatural History
- Chionaspis euonymi Comstock 1881a: 313-314. Type data: UNITED STATES: Virginia, Norfolk, on Euonymus latifolia, by H.P. Worcester. Lectotype, female, by subsequent designation (GillMiDa1982,9). Type depository: Washington: United States National Entomological Collection, U.S. National Museum of Natural History, District of Columbia, USA; accepted valid name
- Chionaspis evonymi Comstock, 1881; Targioni Tozzetti 1884: 396. misspelling of species epithet
- Chionaspis Nemausensis Targioni Tozzetti 1886: ix. nomen nudum (discovered by Balach1954e, 294).
- Unaspis euonymi (Comstock, 1881); Ferris 1937: SI-130. change of combination
- Unaspis nakayamai Takahashi & Kanda 1939a: 185-187. Type data: SOUTH KOREA: Suigen, on Ilex serrata var. sieboldii, 05/11/1937, by S. Nakayama.. Syntypes, female, by subsequent designation Type depository: Taichung: Entomology Collection, Taiwan Agricultural Research Institute, Wu-feng, Taichung, Taiwan; junior synonym (discovered by Rao1949, 63). Illustr.
- Unaspis evonymi (Comstock, 1881); Bodenheimer 1953: 13. change of combination and misspelling of species epithet
- Unaspis evonymi Bodenheimer, 1953; Balachowsky 1954e: 294. misspelling of species epithet
- Unaspis hakayamai Takahashi & Kanda, 1939; Borchsenius 1966: 106. misspelling of species epithet
- Unaspis euoymi (Comstock, 1881); Wu 1999b: 235. misspelling of species epithet Notes: Incorrect citation of Comstocki as author.
- Unaspis euconymi (Comstock, 1881); Tao 1999: 121. misspelling of species epithet
- Unaspis evonumi Bodenheimer, 1953; Aligeydar 2016: 694. misspelling of species epithet
- Unaspis euonymii (Comstock, 1881); Japoshvili, ett al. 2020: 65. misspelling of species epithet
Common Names
- cochenille du fusain MawFoHa2000
- euonymus scale Blicke1965 Hollin1923
- spindle berry scale Vinis1977
- spindle tree hard scale Bustsh1958
- escama del evónimo WatsonKo2022a
Ecological Associates
Hosts:
Families: 22 | Genera: 35
- Anacardiaceae
- Cotinus coggygria | BatsanKaKi2017
- Pistacia lentiscus | Yasar2020
- Aquifoliaceae
- Ilex | MillerDa2005
- Ilex cornuta | Suh2020
- Ilex serrata | TakahaKa1939a
- Araliaceae
- Hedera colchica | Hadzib1983
- Hedera helix | Hadzib1983
- Asparagaceae
- Aspidistra elatior | Borg1932
- Betulaceae
- Carpinus | BatsanKaKi2017
- Buxaceae
- Buxus | MillerDa2005 Tao1999
- Buxus sempervirens | Yasar2020
- Pachysandra | Borchs1966 MillerDa2005
- Pachysandra terminalis | Koszta1963 SadofSc2000
- Caprifoliaceae
- Lonicera | Borchs1966
- Symphoricarpos | MillerDa2005
- Celastraceae
- Celastrus | Borchs1966 MillerDa2005
- Celastrus scandens | BognarVi1979 Felt1901
- Euonymus | Comsto1881 Ferris1937 MillerDa2005 Moghad2013a
- Euonymus alatus | Suh2020
- Euonymus europaeus | LepineMi1931
- Euonymus fortunei | BognarVi1979 Hollin1923 | (= Euonymus radicans)
- Euonymus japonicus | Hollin1923 Martin1983 | (= Euonymus pulchellus)
- Euonymus latifolius | BatsanKaKi2017
- Euonymus nanus | BognarVi1979
- Euonymus verrucosus | BatsanKaKi2017
- Pachistima | Borchs1966
- Tripterygium | MillerDa2005
- Gesneriaceae
- Saintpaulia ionantha | Yasar2020
- Hydrangeaceae
- Philadelphus | MillerDa2005
- Magnoliaceae
- Magnolia | MillerDa2005
- Malvaceae
- Althaea | MillerDa2005
- Hibiscus | Borchs1966
- Moraceae
- Ficus | MillerDa2005
- Ficus benjamina | KeskinOzCi2022 Yasar2020 | including var. starlight
- Myrtaceae
- Eugenia | MillerDa2005
- Oleaceae
- Forsythia koreana | Suh2020
- Fraxinus | MillerDa2005
- Fraxinus berlandieriana | BicheArMe2022
- Fraxinus excelsior | Hadzib1983
- Jasminum | Borchs1966
- Ligustrum | Borchs1966 MillerDa2005
- Ligustrum vulgare | BicheArMe2022
- Olea | Borchs1966
- Olea europaea | BicheArMe2022
- Syringa | Borchs1966
- Primulaceae
- Primula | MillerDa2005
- Rosaceae
- Rutaceae
- Citrus | MillerDa2005
- Citrus maxima | Tao1999 | According to Ferris (1937) records of {U. euonymi} on {Citrus} are probably erroneous due to confusion with {U. citri} or {U. yanonensis}.
- Santalaceae
- Viscum album | Hadzib1983
- Sapindaceae
- Acer | MillerDa2005
- Theaceae
- Camellia | MillerDa2005
- Thymelaeaceae
- Daphne | Borchs1966 MillerDa2005
Foes:
Families: 11 | Genera: 21
- Acaridae
- Thyreophagus entomophagus | WatsonKo2022a
- Thyrophagus entomophagus | KosztaKo1988F
- Anystidae
- Anystis | GillMiDa1982
- Aphelinidae
- Ablerus perspeciosus | SuhEv2015
- Aphelinus | Poutie1928
- Aphytis diaspidis | Fulmek1943 GillMiDa1982 Morley1909 | (= Aphelinus fuscipennis)
- Aphytis gordoni | RosenDe1979
- Aphytis maculicornis | Poutie1928 | (= Aphelinus maculicornis)
- Aphytis proclia | DeBachRo1976
- Aphytis yanonensis | WatsonKo2022a
- Coccobius | WatsonKo2022a
- Coccophagus lycimnia | WatsonKo2022a
- Diaspiniphagus moeris | Aligey2016 KosztaKo1988F | (= Diaspiniphagus similis) (= Coccophagoides similis)
- Encarsia citrina | HuangPo1998 Poutie1928 Viggia1987 | (= Aspidiotiphagus citrinus)
- Encarsia fasciata | Aligey2016
- Encarsia gigas | KosztaKo1988F | (= Prospaltella gigas)
- Marietta carnesi | SuhEv2015
- Coccinellidae
- Chilocorus | Gaprin1956 Rauled2011
- Chilocorus bipustulatus | Gaprin1956
- Chilocorus renipustulatus | Kato1968 Koszta1996 | (= Chilocorus kuwanae)
- Chilocorus stigma | GillMiDa1982
- Cybocephalidae
- Cybocephalus | DreaCa1987
- Cybocephalus nipponicus | JefferScBr1995
- Encyrtidae
- Metaphycus hispanicus | Balach1930e KosztaKo1988F | (= Aenasioidea hispanica)
- Neococcidencyrtus poutiersi | GillMiDa1982 KosztaKo1988F | (= Coccidencyrtus poutiersi)
- Hemisarcoptidae
- Hemisarcoptes budensis | FainRi1998
- Hemisarcoptes malus | GillMiDa1982
- Mymaridae
- Alaptus pallidicornis | KosztaKo1988F | (= Alaptus excisus)
- Dicopus citri | Balach1954e KosztaKo1988F
- Phytoseiidae
- Typhlodromus | Gaprin1956
- Pteromalidae
- Pachyneuron coccorum | Fulmek1943
- Signiphoridae
- Signiphora merceti | GillMiDa1982 KosztaKo1988F | (= Thysanus merceti)
Geographic Distribution
Countries: 40
- Algeria | Nakaha1982
- Argentina | Koszta1996 Lizery1942
- Armenia | Balach1954e Nakaha1982
- Austria | Malump2011a MerrilCh1923
- Azerbaijan | Aligey2016 Borchs1937a
- Belgium | Malump2016
- Bolivia | Squire1972
- Bulgaria | Tsalev1968 Tschor1939
- Canada
- British Columbia | MawFoHa2000
- Canary Islands | CarnerPe1986 MatileOr2001
- China
- Aomen (=Macau) | Atanas1959
- Guangdong (=Kwangtung) | Tao1999
- Guangxi (=Kwangsi) | Hua2000
- Henan (=Honan) | Hua2000
- Henan (=Honan) | Wu1999b
- Hubei (=Hupei) | Hua2000
- Hunan | Hua2000
- Jiangsu (=Kiangsu) | Tao1999
- Nei Monggol (=Inner Mongolia) | Tao1999
- Shandong (=Shantung) | Tao1999 Wu1935
- Shanxi (=Shansi) | Xie1998
- Sichuan (=Szechwan) | Hua2000
- Xianggang (=Hong Kong) | Nakaha1982
- Xizang (=Tibet) | Hua2000
- Crete | PellizPoSe2011
- Croatia | MastenSi2008
- Egypt | Balach1954e DanzigPe1998
- France | Foldi2001 MerrilCh1923
- Georgia (Republic of) | BatsanKaKi2017 Hadzib1941
- Abkhaz ASSR | Borchs1937a
- Adzhar ASSR | Borchs1937a
- Germany | SchmutHo2016
- Greece | Korone1934 Kozar1985
- Hungary | Koszta1956a Vinis1977
- Iran | Balach1954e KozarFoZa1996 Seghat1977
- Israel | Bodenh1927a Koszta1996
- Italy | LongoMaPe1995 MerrilCh1923
- Sicily | Costan1950 LongoMaPe1995
- Japan
- Hokkaido | Muraka1970
- Honshu | Muraka1970 TakahaTa1956
- Kyushu | Muraka1970 TakahaTa1956
- Shikoku | Muraka1970 TakahaTa1956
- Malta | Borg1932
- Mexico | Koszta1996
- Morocco | LepineMi1931
- Portugal | DanzigPe1998
- Romania | KosztaKo1988F
- Russia
- Krasnodar Kray | Zagain1956
- Sardinia | LongoMaPe1995 Melis1930
- Slovenia | WatsonKo2022a
- South Korea | ESKSAE1994 KwonHaCh2005 TakahaKa1939a
- Spain | GomezM1937 Martin1983
- Switzerland | Balach1954e
- Turkey | Bodenh1949 KaymakYa2017 Koszta1996
- Ukraine | Nakaha1982
- Krym (=Crimea) Oblast | Borchs1937a Bustsh1958 Nakaha1982
- United Kingdom
- England | MalumpBa2012 MerrilCh1923
- United States
- Alabama | Nakaha1982
- Arizona | GillMiDa1982
- Arkansas | Nakaha1982
- California | Ferris1937 MerrilCh1923
- Connecticut | Britto1905 Ferris1937
- Delaware | Ferris1937 Koszta1996
- District of Columbia | Ferris1937 Koszta1996
- Florida | Ferris1937 MacGow1982
- Georgia | Ferris1937 Scott1900
- Illinois | Ferris1937 Koszta1996
- Indiana | Ferris1937 Koszta1996
- Kentucky | Ferris1937 Koszta1996
- Louisiana | BrewerOl1984
- Maine | Ferris1937 Koszta1996
- Maryland | Ferris1937 Koszta1996
- Massachusetts | Ferris1937 Koszta1996
- Michigan | Ferris1937 Koszta1996
- Mississippi | Ferris1937 MerrilCh1923
- Missouri | Ferris1937 Hollin1923
- Nebraska | Nakaha1982
- New Hampshire | Ferris1937 Koszta1996
- New Jersey | Ferris1937 Koszta1996
- New Mexico | Nakaha1982
- New York | Felt1901 Ferris1937 Koszta1996
- North Carolina | Merril1953
- Ohio | Ferris1937 MerrilCh1923
- Oklahoma | Nakaha1982
- Pennsylvania | Ferris1937 Koszta1996
- Rhode Island | Ferris1937 Koszta1996
- South Carolina | Merril1953
- Tennessee | LambdiWa1980
- Texas | Ferris1937 McDani1973 MerrilCh1923
- Virginia | BesheaTiHo1973 Comsto1881a Ferris1937
- West Virginia | Ferris1937 Koszta1996
- Wisconsin | Ferris1937 Koszta1996
- Uzbekistan | Nakaha1982
- Yugoslavia | Kozar1983a
Keys
- NiuFe2019: pp.579 ( Adult (F) ) [Species of Unaspis]
- Watson2015a: pp.437 ( Adult (F) ) [slide-mounted adult females of Unaspis]
- SuhJi2009: pp.1041-1043 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of armored scales intercepted on imported plants (slide mounted females)]
- MillerDa2005: pp.29-31 ( Adult (F) ) [Field Key to Economic Armored Scales]
- MillerDa2005: pp.20-21 ( Adult (F) ) [Armored Scales]
- Zeng2000: pp.51 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to Chinese species of Unaspis]
- Koszta1996: pp.409 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to the genera of the subfamily Diaspidinae]
- Danzig1993: pp.306 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of Unaspis]
- HowardOl1985: pp.65 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to Unaspis species of Louisiana]
- Chen1983: pp.29 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of Unaspis]
- Chou1982: pp.67 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to Chinese species of Unaspis]
- Danzig1971d: pp.843 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of family Diaspididae]
- Takagi1961: pp.16 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to Japanese species of Unaspis]
- Balach1954e: pp.289 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of Unaspis]
- Rao1949: pp.64 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of Unaspis]
- Ferris1942: pp.SIV-446: 63 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of Unaspis]
- Archan1937: pp.88 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of Chionaspis]
- Kuwana1928: pp.3 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of Chionaspis] Key as: Chionaspis euonymi
- Britto1923: pp.362 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of Chionaspis] Key as: Chionaspis euonymi
- Hollin1923: pp.19 ( Adult (F) ) [Species of Chionaspis known to occur in Missouri] Key as: Chionaspis euonymi
- MacGil1921: pp.325 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of Chionaspis] Key as: Chionaspis euonymi
- Leonar1920: pp.226 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to Italian species of Chionaspis] Key as: Chionaspis evonymi
- Comsto1916: pp.558 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of Chionaspis] Key as: Chionaspis euonymi
- Sander1904a: pp.43 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to Chionaspis species of Ohio] Key as: Chionaspis euonymi
- Comsto1881a: pp.97 ( ) [Key to species of Chionaspis] Key as: Chionaspis euonymi
Remarks
- Systematics: Genbank accession number: KF887366 (Campbell, et al., 2014) Unaspis euonymi is close to U. acuminata. It can be separated from U. citri, the only other species of the genus known to occur in North America, by the presence of 5 small groups of perivulvar pores and the lack of sclerotization of the derm of the thorax and 1st abdominal segment (Ferris, 1937).
- Structure: Female scale dark brown or purplish, broad and flattened, usually with a slight median ridge. Male scale white, felted, tricarinate (Ferris, 1937). Slide-mounted adult female pyriform, completely membranous at maturity. Anterior spiracles each associated with 8−12 disc pores; posterior spiracles each with 2−4 associated disc pores. Pygidium with 3 pairs of lobes. Median lobes (L1) parallel, each lobe symmetrical, with outer margin finely serrated. Second and third lobes (L2 and L3) bilobed. Lateral gland spines spiniform, present in pairs on pygidial margins, but more numerous as far anteriorly as segment II. Dorsal marginal ducts present on pygidium and anteriorly as far as abdominal segment I, a few present also on margins of meso- and metathorax. Perivulvar pores present in 5 groups. Ventral duct tubercles present on metathorax and abdominal segments I and II. (Moghaddam & Watson, 2021)
- Biology: Unaspis euonymi has 2 generations per year in Pennsylvania. Fertilized adult females overwinter and begin producing eggs as the weather warms, usually around late April. Eggs hatch and crawlers begin to emerge around mid-May, heavy crawler emergence continues for 1-2 weeks. Crawlers settle and soon begin feeding and mature in about 6 weeks. Oviposition ensues and second generation crawlers appear from late July through mid-August. From late August through September males emerge and fertilize the second generation adult females (Stimmel, 1979b). Additional life history information by Savopoulou-Soultani (1996). An extensive treatment of the life history of this species was given by Gill et al. (1982). The following summarizes that paper. In the northern areas of the United States there are 2 generations per year and in the South there are 3. There are 1 or 2 reports that are inconsistent with these generalities. The overwintering stage is the adult female; immatures apparently are unable to survive the winter. In Maryland egg laying began in early May and ended in late May or early June. Crawlers were present in early May to early July. Adult males occurred from mid-to late June, and adult female of the first generation first appeared in mid-June. Eggs of the second generation began in late June and crawlers appeared in mid-July. Adult males of this generation were observed in early to mid-September and adult females began to occur in late August. Savopoulou-Soultani (19197) conducted a detailed analysis of the life history of this species under controlled conditions in the laboratory. Mussey and Potter (1997) pointed out that plant phenology was a better predictor of the developmental stages of this and several other species of scale than were calendar dates (Miller & Davidson, 2005).
- Economic Importance: In Missouri, Unaspis euonymi is a pest both in greenhouses and out- of-doors. It attacks almost all parts of the host above ground (Hollinger, 1923). Miller & Davidson (1990) list this insect as a serious and widespread pest. This scale has been reported as a serious pest of Euonymus in most areas of the world where it occurs (e.g., U. S. -- Gill 1997, Cockfield and Potter 1990; France -- Chauvel 1999; Germany -- Schmutterer 1998; Hungary -- Asef 1999; Poland -- Labanowski and Soika 1998; Yugoslavia -- Kozarzhevskaya and Vlainic 1982). Van Driesche et al. (1998) calculated annual economic losses by this scale on Euonymus fortunei in Massachusetts at approximately $355,000 and for all of New England about $711,000. If these costs were extended to the entire United States the annual cost would be multiple millions of dollars, and these figures do not consider the cost of control strategies. Gill et al. (1982) discussed the economic importance of euonymus scale in detail and presented a lengthy literature search. They noted that insecticides were the major control method but suggested that plant resistance and biological control were alternatives worth investigation. They have been proved correct, since in recent years several biological control agents have been introduced into the United States with some success (Drea and Carlson 1987, Alvarez and Van Driesche 1998, Hendrickson et al. 1991, Jefferson et al. 1995, Van Dreische et al. 1998). Host-plant resistance also has been examined, and it is clear that certain species and varieties are more susceptible than others (Brewer and Oliver 1987, Jefferson and Schultz 1995, Sadof and Raupp 1991). In Maryland this scale is rarely found on hosts other than Euonymus. Although dieback has been observed on several species of Euonymus including decumbent species, only E. japonica cultivars are consistently killed by the pest. In a study area used by Gill et al. (1982) for their research, specimens of E. japonica and E. kiautschovica (=E. sieboldiana) were growing together in a hedge and were observed for more than 2 years. Several of the E. japonica plants were killed by the scale during the study and the others were heavily infested and showed obvious symptoms of serious scale damage. The E. kiautschovica plants, on the other hand, showed no signs of damage and had only light infestations. Euonymus fortunei also is reported to sustain severe damage. Warner (1949) found similar evidence of resistance in the Arnold Arboretum. Among heavily infested plants, he found specimens of E. alata Cv 'Compacta', E. sachalinensis, and E. sanguinea that were uninfested. Beardsley and González (1975) consider this to be one of 43 major armored scale pests, and Miller and Davidson (1990) treat this species as a serious world pest(Miller & Davidson, 2005).
- General Remarks: Detailed redescription and illustrations by Gill et al. (1982). Color photograph in Watson & Kondo (2022a).
Illustrations
Citations
- AAEE1931: taxonomy, 1280
- AbdRabEv2021: distribution, host, 39
- AlvareLiLu2020: phylogeny, 5
- AlvareVa1998a: biological control, 429
- AndersWuGr2010: phylogeny, taxonomy, 997-1003
- Archan1937: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 88-89
- Arnett1985: economic importance, taxonomy, 243
- Atanas1959: distribution, host, taxonomy, 431
- Balach1930e: biological control, host, 220
- Balach1954e: biological control, description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 289, 294-298
- Balach1957: taxonomy, 33
- BalasSa1982: distribution, host, 415
- BatsanKaKi2017: distribution, host, 261
- Beffa1937: distribution, host, 66
- BentleBa1931: description, taxonomy, 27
- BesheaTiHo1973: distribution, host, 14
- BicheArMe2022: distribution, host, 507
- Blicke1965: taxonomy, 292, 317
- Bodenh1927a: distribution, host, 177
- Bodenh1928: distribution, host, 191
- Bodenh1930a: distribution, host, 355
- Bodenh1949: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 109, 111-113
- Bodenh1953: distribution, host, 13
- BognarVi1979: distribution, host, 18
- BoratyWi1964: taxonomy, 88
- Borchs1934: taxonomy, 26
- Borchs1937: taxonomy, 114
- Borchs1937a: distribution, host, 11, 111, 251
- Borchs1949d: taxonomy, 216
- Borchs1950b: distribution, taxonomy, 196
- Borg1932: distribution, host, 13
- BrewerOl1984: distribution, economic importance, host, life history, 10-12
- BrewerOl1987: distribution, host, 119-122
- Britto1905: distribution, host, 10-11
- Britto1920: distribution, 64
- Britto1923: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 362, 363
- Brown1965: chemistry, 236
- Bustsh1958: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 186, 200-202
- CaliskUl2017: distribution, host, taxonomy, 343
- CampbeLaHu2014: DNA, genebank, phylogeny, 531, 532, 533
- CarnerPe1986: distribution, host, taxonomy, 31, 63
- Chen1983: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 29, 31-32, 120
- Chou1982: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 67, 71-73
- Chou1986: illustration, 465
- Comsto1881a: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 313-314
- Comsto1883: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 97, 102
- Comsto1916: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 462, 558, 563
- CostaL1949: biological control, host, 71
- Costan1950: distribution, host, taxonomy, 10
- Cowles2010: biological control, 1736
- Craw1896: distribution, host, 38
- Danzig1964: distribution, taxonomy, 649
- Danzig1971d: taxonomy, 843
- Danzig1993: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 306, 307
- DanzigPe1998: catalog, distribution, host, taxonomy, 368
- DaoBeWa2018: phylogeny, 92
- Davis1896: distribution, host, taxonomy, 38
- DeBach1964d: biological control, distribution, 6
- DeBachRo1976: biological control, 178
- DeSant1941a: biological control, distribution, 122
- DeveliMuKa2018: distribution, host, taxonomy, 11
- DowellGiJe2016: distribution, 116
- DreaCa1987: biological control, distribution, host, 307-309
- ESKSAE1994: distribution, list, 114
- Englis1976: distribution, host, 33-34
- ErlerKoTu1996: distribution, host, 58
- Essig1931: distribution, host, 340
- FainRi1998: biological control, distribution, host, 33
- Felt1901: distribution, host, 360
- Felt1924: distribution, host, 148, 153
- Fernal1903b: distribution, host, taxonomy, 216
- Ferris1937: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, SI-130
- Ferris1942: taxonomy, SIV-446: 63
- FetykoKoDa2010: distribution, 295
- Feytau1916: taxonomy, 9
- Foldi2001: distribution, economic importance, 306, 308
- FoldiGe2018: distribution, 10
- FrancoRuMa2011: distribution, 15,24
- Frank2020: ecology, life history, 3
- Fulmek1943: biological control, catalog, distribution, 23
- Gahan1907: distribution, host, life history, 10
- GalchiUsYa2020: DNA, control,
- GalchiYaNo2024: control, 2
- Gaprin1950: biological control, distribution, 53, 250
- Gaprin1954: distribution, taxonomy, 588
- Gaprin1956: biological control, distribution, host, taxonomy, 116-117, 133
- Garcia1912: biological control, 7, 75
- Garcia1930: biological control, 53
- Gavalo1928: distribution, host, 54
- Gavalo1929: distribution, host, 167
- Gavril2018: reproduction, 244
- Germai2008: distribution, 77-87
- Gill1982c: distribution, host, illustration, 1
- GillMiDa1982: biological control, description, distribution, economic importance, host, illustration, life history, taxonomy, 1-21
- GomezM1937: biological control, description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 11, 23, 213, 214-219
- GomezM1954: distribution, host, 122
- GomezM1958a: taxonomy, 8
- GranarCl2003: distribution, host, 630
- GutueGuRo2015: biological control, chemical control,
- Hadzib1941: distribution, host, 187
- Hadzib1983: distribution, host, taxonomy, 183-184, 275
- Herric1911: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 24-25
- HertinSi1972: biological control, 191
- HodekHo2009: biological control, 235
- Hoffma1927: distribution, host, 76
- Hollin1923: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 19, 23, 68, 69
- HowardOl1985: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 65, 66
- HuHeWa1992: distribution, illustration, 202-203
- Hua2000: distribution, host, 162
- HuangPo1998: biological control, 1860
- JansenAl2023: dispersal, host, 28,34
- JaposhBaKi2020: distribution, host, 65
- JefferScBr1995: biological control, distribution, host, 273-277
- Kato1968: biological control, distribution, host, 29-38
- Kawai1972: distribution, host, taxonomy, 43
- Kawai1980: distribution, host, taxonomy, 271
- KaymakYa2017: distribution, host, taxonomy, 49
- KeskinOzCi2022: distribution, host, taxonomy, 245
- Kiritc1928: distribution, host, 116
- KondoWa2022a: distribution, host, list, 20
- Korobi1967: distribution, host, 184
- Korone1934: distribution, host, taxonomy, 57-58
- Koszta1956a: biological control, distribution, host, taxonomy, 408
- Koszta1963: biological control, description, distribution, host, illustration, life history, taxonomy, 102-103
- Koszta1996: description, distribution, economic importance, host, illustration, taxonomy, 591-592
- KosztaKo1978: distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 177, 178
- KosztaKo1988F: biological control, description, distribution, economic importance, illustration, life history, taxonomy, 385-387
- Kozar1980: distribution, host, 70
- Kozar1983a: distribution, host, 148
- Kozar1985: distribution, 203
- Kozar2009a: distribution, 583
- KozarFoZa1996: distribution, 68
- KozarKiSa2004: distribution, 61
- KozarKoSa2002: catalog, distribution, 39
- KozarTzVi1979: taxonomy, 132
- KozarWa1985: catalog, distribution, 88
- KozarzVl1981: distribution, host, 16, 21, 23
- KreiteAuGe2006: distribution, economic importance, host, 143
- Kuwana1928: distribution, host, 3, 14
- KwonHaCh2005: distribution, host, illustration, 54-60
- Lambdi1995: biological control, distribution, host, 327-330
- LambdiWa1980: distribution, host, 81
- Leonar1920: distribution, host, 226
- LepineMi1931: distribution, host, 249
- Lindin1909b: taxonomy, 361
- Lindin1911: structure, 354
- Lindin1912b: taxonomy, 146
- Lindin1928: taxonomy, 102
- LiuWa1996: key,
- LiuXuFa2019: distribution, host,
- Lizery1942: distribution, host, 75
- Lobdel1937: structure, 78
- LongoMaPe1995: distribution, 129
- LongoMaPe1999a: distribution, 148
- Lupo1938a: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 271, 272-277
- MacGil1921: distribution, host, taxonomy, 325
- Malump2011a: distribution, host, illustration, 55-57
- Malump2016: distribution, host, 245-251
- MalumpBa2012: distribution, economic importance, host, 29-30,38,39,41
- MalumpKa2011a: distribution, host, illustration, 54, 57
- Martin1983: distribution, host, 57
- MartinLa2011: catalog, distribution, 43
- MastenSi2008: catalog, distribution, host, 105-119
- MatileOr2001: distribution, 190
- MawFoHa2000: distribution, taxonomy, 45
- McCombDa1969: distribution, host, 3
- McDani1973: distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 399-401
- McKenz1947: distribution, host, 32
- McKenz1956: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 159, 161, 163
- Melis1930: distribution, host, 15
- Merril1953: distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 83
- MerrilCh1923: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 194, 214-215
- MifsudMaRu2014: distribution, host, 513
- MihajlKo1983: biological control, distribution, host, 298-299
- Miller1999: taxonomy, 14
- Miller2005: distribution, 488
- MillerDa1990: economic importance, taxonomy, 305
- MillerDa2005: description, distribution, economic importance, host, 396
- MillerDe2018: history, 7
- MilonaKoKo2008a: distribution, 143-147
- Modugn1953: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 113-135
- Moghad2004: distribution, host, 29
- Moghad2013a: distribution, host, 55
- MoghadWa2021: diagnosis, distribution, economic importance, host, illustration, natural enemies, taxonomy, 13, 237, 239, 251
- Morgan1892: distribution, 16
- Morley1909: biological control, 277
- Muraka1970: distribution, host, life history, 96
- Nakaha1982: distribution, host, 85
- Neiswa1966: description, distribution, economic importance, host, life history, 6
- NikolsYa1966: biological control, 199, 260, 264, 283
- NiuFe2019: key, 579
- NormarOkMo2019: distribution, host, phylogeny, taxonomy, 34,37
- OberemLaGa2024: DNA, control,
- Paik1978: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 398-399
- Paoli1915: distribution, host, 254
- Pelliz2011: distribution, 312
- PellizChMi2015: distribution, 62,72
- PellizFo1996: distribution, 122
- PellizGe2010a: distribution, host, 481,504
- PellizPoSe2011: distribution, host, 295,298
- PerezGCa1985: distribution, 316, 318
- PooleGe1997: distribution, 352
- Poutie1928: biological control, description, 269
- Priore1964: distribution, host, illustration, life history, 170
- Priore1965: description, distribution, host, illustration, 138
- Rao1949: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 60, 62, 64
- Robiso1977: physiology, 42, 45, 48
- RosenDe1979: biological control, distribution, 765
- RossHaOk2012: phylogeny, taxonomy, 199
- Ruhl1919: taxonomy, 40
- SadofSc2000: chemical control, distribution, host, life history, 120-125
- SalisbMaHa2013: description, distribution, economic importance, host, natural enemies, 211
- Sander1904a: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 43, 45-46
- Savopo1996: distribution, economic importance, host, 103-105
- Savopo1997: host, life history, 955-960
- Schmut1959: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 223-225
- SchmutHo2016: distribution, host, illustration, 66, 83, 95
- Schrea1970: chemical control, distribution, host, 6
- Schude1954: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 173-175
- Scott1900: distribution, host, 52
- Seghat1977: distribution, host, 11
- ShahbaHoHa2022: natural enemies,
- Signor1886: taxonomy, ix
- Sleesm1945: distribution, host, 46
- Squire1972: distribution, 249
- Stalaz2014: distribution, 453, 465
- Stalaz2021: distribution, host, 465
- Stimme1979b: chemical control, description, distribution, economic importance, host, illustration, life history, taxonomy, 23-24
- Suh2016: distribution, host, key, 319, 331
- Suh2020: distribution, host, 8, 9, 10,
- SuhEv2015: natural enemies,
- SuhJi2009: distribution, illustration, taxonomy, 1039-1054
- SwanPa1972: distribution, host, 165
- Takagi1961: distribution, host, taxonomy, 16
- Takagi1970: taxonomy, 37
- Takaha1957b: taxonomy, 105
- TakahaKa1939a: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 185-187
- TakahaTa1956: distribution, host, 11
- Tang1977: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 184-185
- Tang1984b: host, 130
- Tang2001: taxonomy, 4
- Tao1999: distribution, host, 121
- Targio1884: distribution, host, taxonomy, 396
- Targio1885: distribution, host, taxonomy, 111
- Teodor1930: distribution, host, 69
- Teodor2018: distribution, history, host, 43, 50
- TerGri1954: distribution, host, 66-67
- TerGri1962: distribution, host, 146
- TerGri1969a: distribution, host, 5, 72
- Terezn1968b: distribution, host, 49
- Terezn1982: distribution, illustration, 61
- TrenchPa1981: biological control, distribution, 37
- TrenchTo2014: distribution, 70
- TrenchTrTo2010: distribution, host, 118
- Tsalev1968: distribution, host, 211
- Tsalev1972: biological control, distribution, 86
- Tschor1939: distribution, 90
- UlgentErYa2022: distribution, host, S121
- VanDriKiRo1998: distribution, economic importance, host, 217-220
- Viggia1987: biological control, 136
- Vinis1977: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 5-10
- WaltmaRaWi2016: distribution, 231
- Wang1981TC: description, distribution, host, 290
- WatsonKo2022a: biology, control, diagnosis, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 544
- Weiss1915: distribution, host, 165
- Willia2017a: catalog, list of species, 222
- Wilson1917: distribution, host, 23
- Woodwo1909: distribution, host, 359
- Worsha1909: distribution, host, 207
- Wu1935: distribution, host, taxonomy, 200
- Wu1999b: distribution, list of species, 234
- Xie1998: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 128-129
- Yang1982: taxonomy, 239
- Yasar2020: distribution,
- Yasnos1978: biological control, 498, 501
- Zagain1956: distribution, host, 87
- Zeng2000: distribution, taxonomy, 51
