Valid Names Results

Unaspis citri (Comstock, 1883) (Diaspididae: Unaspis)

Nomenclatural History

Chionaspis euonymi; Comstock 1881a: 313. misidentification (discovered by Ferris1937, SI-129). Illustr.
Chionaspis citri Comstock 1883: 100-102. Type data: UNITED STATES: Louisiana, on Citrus sp.. Syntypes, female, Type depository: Washington: United States National Entomological Collection, U.S. National Museum of Natural History, District of Columbia, USA; accepted valid name Illustr.
Howardia citri (Comstock, 1883); Berlese & Leonardi 1896: 348. change of combination
Chionaspis citricola Comstock, 1883; Froggatt 1902a: 903, 908. misspelling of species epithet Notes: Froggatt (1902a) consistently spelled the name Chionaspis citricola which was never used elsewhere. He appearently was referring to Unaspis citri since he used the common name white louse which refers to this species.
Dinaspis annae Malenotti 1916b: 188-192. Type data: BARBADOS: on Citrus medica acida, 04/07/1916, by Prof. Ballou. Syntypes, female, junior synonym (discovered by Laing1929a, 480). Notes: Types presumed lost. Illustr.
Prontaspis citri (Comstock, 1883); MacGillivray 1921: 359. change of combination
Dinaspis veitchi Green & Laing 1923: 123. Type data: FIJI: Rarawai, on unknown host, by R. Veitch. Lectotype, female, by subsequent designation (WilliaWa1988,247). Type depository: London: The Natural History Museum, England, UK; junior synonym (discovered by Rao1949, 62). Illustr.
Trichomytilus veitchi (Green & Laing, 1923); Lindinger 1934: 64. change of combination
Diaspis annae (Malenotti, 1916); Wu 1935: 204. change of combination
Unaspis citri (Comstock, 1883); Ferris 1937: SI-129. change of combination
Chionaspis annae (Malenotti, 1916); Lindinger 1943b: 265. change of combination
Uniaspis citri; Kalshoven 1981: 173. misspelling of genus name
Uniaspis citri (Comstock, 1883); Kalshoven 1981: 173. revived combination (previously published)
Unaspis crtri (Comstock, 1883); Tang 1986: 131. misspelling of species epithet
Unaspis cixri (Comstock, 1883); Wang & Liu 1996: 43. misspelling of species epithet

Common Names

citrus snow scale WatsonBe1937
cochinilla acanalada de los citricos Alvara1939
cochonilha branca da laranjeira Bertel1956
guagua nevada de los cítricos AlayoS1976
orange chionaspis Hall1924a
orange snow scale Borchs1966 Newste1907a
white louse Borchs1966 Frogga1902a
white louse scale SmithBeBr1997
white snow scale Tanaka1981a
la escama de nieve en citricos CoronaRu1992
niseyanone-kaigaramushi WatsonKo2022a
Schneeweisse citrus-schildlaus WatsonKo2022a

Ecological Associates

Hosts:

Families: 17 | Genera: 24

Anacardiaceae

Mangifera | MillerDa2005
Mangifera indica | GermaiVaMa2010

Annonaceae

Annona muricata | WilliaWa1988
Rollinia | WatsonKo2022a

Arecaceae

Cocos | SilvadGoGa1968

Bromeliaceae

Ananas | MillerDa2005
Tillandsia usneoides | TippinBe1975

Celastraceae

Euonymus japonicus | Newste1907a
Euonymus latifolius | Borchs1966 Comsto1881a

Fabaceae

Acacia | MillerDa2005
Acacia oshanesii | MillerDa2005
Inga | LincanHoCa2010

Lauraceae

Persea americana | Ballou1945

Malvaceae

Hibiscus | MillerDa2005

Mantidae

Severinia | WatsonKo2022a

Moraceae

Artocarpus | WatsonKo2022a

Musaceae

Musa | WilliaWa1988

Myrtaceae

Psidium guajava | WilliaWa1988

Oleaceae

Olea | WatsonKo2022a
Osmanthus | Borchs1966 MillerDa2005

Pittosporaceae

Pittosporum | MillerDa2005

Rutaceae

Citrus | CoronaRu1992 MillerDa2005 | (= Poncirus)
Citrus aurantiifolia | Malump2012b YunusHo1980
Citrus aurantium | Mamet1943a | (= Citrus myrtifolia)
Citrus clementina | BicheArMe2022
Citrus japonica | BicheArMe2022
Citrus latifolia | MartinWoCu2022
Citrus limon | Hinckl1963 | (= Citrus limetta)
Citrus maxima | Laing1929a LitBa1994 WilliaWa1988 | (= Citrus decumana) (= Citrus grandis)
Citrus medica | Maleno1916b | var. acida
Citrus nobilis | LitBa1994
Citrus paradisi | ColonFMe1998
Citrus reticulata | CorseuSi1971 WilliaWa1988 | (= Citrus deliciosa)
Citrus sinensis | ColonFMe1998 MilleHeCa2016
Citrus trifoliata | BicheArMe2022 | (= Citrus triptera)
Fortunella | MillerDa2005
Glycosmis parviflora | AlayoS1976
Murraya paniculata | Ballou1945 LitBa1994 | (= Chalcas exotica)

Sapindaceae

Nephelium lappaceum | HernanNiMa2011

Solanaceae

Capsicum | WatsonKo2022a

Foes:

Families: 11 | Genera: 25

Aphelinidae

Ablerus ciliatus | WatsonKo2022a
Aphytis chrysomphali | MilleHeCa2016
Aphytis comperei | MyartsRuCo2016
Aphytis debachi | RosenDe1979
Aphytis gordoni | DeBachRo1976a
Aphytis lingnanensis | CaveMa1994 MyartsRu2000 TakagiRo1981
Aphytis pinnaspidis | MyartsRuCo2016
Aphytis proclia | WatsonKo2022a
Coccobius flaviceps | GressiDj1950 | (= Physcus flaviceps)
Coccophagus | WatsonKo2022a
Encarsia | GonzalHeSi1991 | (= Aspidiotiphagus)
Encarsia citrina | Beingo1967 SmithBeBr1997 | (= Aspidiotiphagus citrinus)
Encarsia inquirenda | HuangPo1998
Encarsia llerica | MyartsRuCo2016
Encarsia lounsburyi | CaveMa1994 SilvadGoGa1968 | (= Aspidiophagus lounsburyi)
Encarsia perniciosi | MalipaDuSm2000
Marietta | GressiDj1950

Asilidae

Atomosia macquarti | CoronaRu1999

Batrachedridae

Batrachedra | WatsonKo2022a

Coccinellidae

Chilocorus circumdatus | SmithBeBr1997
Chilocorus rubidus | GressiDj1950
Cryptognatha | WatsonKo2022a
Cryptolaemus montrouzieri | Frogga1902a
Diomus notescens | WatsonKo2022a
Halmus chalybeus | Frogga1902a | (= Orcus chalybeus)
Pentilia castanea | WatsonKo2022a
Scymnus notescens | Frogga1902a
Telsimia elainae | Chazea1984
Zagloba beaumonti | CoronaRuJa2000

Encyrtidae

Arrhenophagus chionaspidis | Fulmek1943

Eupelmidae

Tineobius citri | Fulmek1943

Hemisarcoptidae

Hemisarcoptes malus | GersonSc1981

Hypocreales

Clonostachys coccicola | DaoBeRo2016

Nectriaceae

Fusarium coccidicola | MilleHeCa2016
Microcera coccophila | DaoBeRo2016

Signiphoridae

Signiphora | WatsonKo2022a

Trichogrammatidae

Oligosita sanguinea | WatsonKo2022a

Associates:

Families: 2 | Genera: 2

Hypocreales

Cosmospora aurantiicola | GonzalHeSi1991

Tubeufiaceae

Podonectria coccicola | DaoBeRo2016 GonzalHeSi1991
Podonectria novae-zelandiae | DaoBeRo2016

Geographic Distribution

Countries: 101

Algeria | Trabut1910

American Samoa | MerrilCh1923

Antigua and Barbuda

Antigua | Maxwel1902

Argentina | MerrilCh1923 SilvadGoGa1968

Corrientes | WatsonKo2022a
Entre Rios | WatsonKo2022a
Misiones | WatsonKo2022a
Salta | WatsonKo2022a
Tucuman | WatsonKo2022a

Armenia | TerGri1969a

Australia | Maxwel1902

New South Wales | SmithBeBr1997
Northern Territory | EFSA2018
Queensland | SmithBeBr1997 Summer1934
South Australia | WatsonKo2022a
Victoria | CABI2017

Azores | Laing1929a SoaresElSc1997 | WatsonKo2022a

Barbados | Maleno1916b

Belize | WatsonKo2022a

Benin | Nakaha1982

Bermuda | HodgsoHi1990 Maxwel1902

Bolivia | Squire1972

Brazil

Alagoas | AlmeidPeMa2018
Espirito Santo | CulikMaVe2008
Mato Grosso | SilvadGoGa1968
Rio Grande do Sul | GomesCRe1947 Koszta1963
Rio de Janeiro | Cocker1902k SilvadGoGa1968
Sao Paulo | SilvadGoGa1968

British Virgin Islands | CABI2017

Brunei | WatsonKo2022a

Burma (=Myanmar) | Clause1933

Cameroon | Nakaha1982

Chile | Porter1934

Tarapaca | WatsonKo2022a

China

Guangdong (=Kwangtung) | ChenWo1936 Hua2000
Guangxi (=Kwangsi) | Hua2000
Hainan | Tang1986
Hubei (=Hupei) | ChenWo1936 Hua2000
Shaanxi (=Shensi) | Hua2000
Sichuan (=Szechwan) | GressiDj1950 Hua2000
Xianggang (=Hong Kong) | RosenDe1979 Wu1935
Zhejiang (=Chekiang) | Hua2000

Colombia | Figuer1946 Giliom1966

Comoros | GermaiAtBa2008

Congo | CABI2017 EFSA2018

Cook Islands | WilliaWa1988

Costa Rica | CABI2017

Cote d'Ivoire (=Ivory Coast) | Nakaha1982

Cuba | Morgan1892 OteroCaMo1996

Curaçao | Reyne1964

Democratic Republic of the Congo (=Zaire) | MayneGh1934 | CABI2017

Dominica | CABI2017

Dominican Republic | Russo1927

Ecuador | YustCe1956

Egypt | AbdRabEv2021 Newste1907a

El Salvador | Berry1959

Federated States of Micronesia

Caroline Islands | WatsonKo2022a
Pohnpei Island | Beards1966
Truk Islands | Nakaha1982

Fiji | Green1915c OConno1949

Gabon | CABI2017

Greece | Nakaha1982

Grenada | Ballou1912a

Guadeloupe | Balach1957c

Guatemala | Alvara1939

Guiana | GermaiDeLa2016

Guinea | Hall1946a Nakaha1982

Guyana (=British Guiana) | Bodkin1922 Cocker1896a

Haiti | CABI2017

Hawaiian Islands

Oahu | Kotins1910

Honduras | CABI2017

Indonesia

Java | Kalsho1981
Kalimantan (=Borneo) | Giliom1966

Italy | Newste1907a

Jamaica | Maxwel1902

Japan | Mamet1943a

Kiribati | WilliaWa1988

Laos | DaoBeWa2023

Liberia | Nakaha1982

Madagascar | Nakaha1982

Malaysia | Clause1933 Giliom1966

Malaya | WatsonKo2022a
Sabah | WatsonKo2022a

Mali | Nakaha1982

Marshall Islands | WatsonKo2022a

Martinique | CABI2017

Mauritius | Kuwana1926 Mamet1943a

Mexico | Maxwel1902

Tamaulipas | Cocker1899n CoronaRu1992 MyartsRu2000
Veracruz | Cocker1899n

Montserrat | CABI2017

Netherlands Antilles | WatsonKo2022a

New Caledonia | Laing1933 WilliaWa1988

New Zealand | Maxwel1902

Niger | CABI2017

Nigeria | Giliom1966 Medler1980

Niue | WilliaWa1988

Panama | WatsonKo2022a

Panama Canal Zone | MerrilCh1923

Papua New Guinea | Giliom1966

Paraguay | CABI2017

Peru | Beingo1967 Soukup1945

Philippines

Luzon | LitBa1994
Mindanao | LitBa1994

Portugal | FrancoRuMa2011 Giliom1966

Puerto Rico & Vieques Island

Puerto Rico | Maxwel1902 Miller2005

Saint Croix | Beatty1944 MiskimBo1970

Saint Kitts and Nevis Islands | CABI2017

Nevis | WatsonKo2022a

Saint Lucia | MerrilCh1923

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | CABI2017

Senegal | Nakaha1982

Seychelles | GermaiAtBa2008

Sierra Leone | Laing1929a

Singapore | Clause1933 Nakaha1982

Solomon Islands | Dumble1954 Giliom1966

South Africa | Laing1929a

Spain | Nakaha1982

Syria | CABI2017

Taiwan | Hua2000

Thailand | Nakaha1982

Togo | Nakaha1982

Tonga | Cocker1896a Dumble1954

Trinidad and Tobago

Trinidad | Maxwel1902

U.S. Virgin Islands | CABI2017

United States

California | Ferris1937 MerrilCh1923
Florida | Ferris1937 MerrilCh1923 Miller2005
Georgia | Miller2005
Louisiana | Comsto1883 Ferris1937 Miller2005
Mississippi | Miller2005
Virginia | Comsto1881a Ferris1937 Miller2005

Uruguay | Kuwana1926

Vanuatu (=New Hebrides) | Laing1929a WilliaBu1987

Venezuela | Ballou1945 Martor1939

Vietnam | DaoBeWa2018 Lamb1974 Nakaha1982

Wallis and Futuna Islands

Wallis Island | Dumble1954

Western Samoa | Dumble1954 WilliaWa1988

Yemen | CABI2017

Keys

DaoBeWa2023: pp.1024, 1027-1028 ( Adult (F) ) [Diaspididae on citrus in Indochina and southern China.]
NiuFe2019: pp.579 ( Adult (F) ) [Species of Unaspis]
DaoBeWa2018: pp.88-93 ( Adult (F) ) [Citrus diaspidids in Viet Nam]
RamosPeKo2017: pp.8145-8152 ( Adult (F) ) [Species of Diaspididae on Citrus spp. from Colombia]
Watson2015a: pp.437 ( Adult (F) ) [slide-mounted adult females of Unaspis]
MillerDa2005: pp.20-21 ( Adult (F) ) [Armored Scales]
Zeng2000: pp.51 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to Chinese species of Unaspis]
Danzig1993: pp.307 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of Unaspis]
Tang1986: pp.131 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of Unaspis]
HowardOl1985: pp.65 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to Unaspis species of Louisiana]
Chen1983: pp.29 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of Unaspis]
Chou1982: pp.67 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to Chinese species of Unaspis]
Dekle1965a: pp.2 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to snow scales on Florida Citrus]
Balach1954e: pp.290 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of Unaspis]
Rao1949: pp.64 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of Unaspis]
Ferris1942: pp.SIV-446: 63 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of Unaspis]
Kuwana1926: pp.41 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of Prontaspis] Key as: Prontaspis citri
MacGil1921: pp.359 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of Prontaspis] Key as: Prontaspis citri
Comsto1916: pp.558 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of Chionaspis] Key as: Chionaspis citri
Maleno1916b: pp.192 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to Dinaspis] Key as: Dinaspis annae
Cocker1900k: pp.349 ( Adult (F) ) [Table to separate the commoner scales (Coccidae) of the orange] Key as: Chionaspis citri
Comsto1881a: pp.97 ( ) [Key to species of Chionaspis] Key as: Chionaspis citri

Remarks

Systematics: GenBank accession number JX677917 was previously determined to be Unaspis citri, but the specimen cannot be identified based on morphology, so it is currently "undet. sp." based on the DNA sequence and the likely source of the DNA is Pinnaspis aspidistrae. (Normark, et al., 2019) Unaspis citri differs from U. yanonensis by having reduced numbers of macroducts on the pygidium (Lit & Balatibat, 1994). The two were confused over the years making some host and distribution records erroneous (Kuwana, 1926).
Structure: Male scale is white, 1 mm long, narrow, and rectangular with 3 longitudinal ridges. Adult male has orange body and transparent wings. Female scale is mussel-shaped, 2 mm long and dark brown in color; body is orange (Smith et al., 1997).
Biology: Male scales form a pre-pupa and a pupa before the short-lived winged adult emerges. Females produce up to 150 eggs over 2-3 months. Eggs hatch almost immediately and crawlers move over the host. The life cycle takes about 8 weeks in summer. Crawlers may be produced all year round, with the largest numbers appearing in autumn. They are dispersed mainly by wind, but also on farm machinery, clothing and plants (Smith et al., 1997). Citrus snow scale has several unsynchronized generations each year in Florida (Bullock and Brooks 1975). Brooks (1977) reported 4 widely overlapping generations a year as common in typical citrus growing areas of the world. Borchsenius (1950) recorded 2 3 generations in Japan with eggs as the overwintering stage. Tikhonov (1966) and Kuhmina (1970) stated that there are 2 or 3 generations in the citrus growing areas of the Former Soviet Union. In Australia, Smith et al. (1997) indicated that there are 5-6 generations in Queensland and 3-4 in New South Wales. They also stated that each female produces up to 150 eggs over 2 or 3 months, and a life cycle takes about 8 weeks during warm months (Miller & Davidson, 2005).
Economic Importance: Miller & Davidson (1990) list this insect as a serious and widespread pest. Heavy infestations of Unaspis citri can cause extensive drying and splitting of the bark on the trunk and main limbs of citrus trees. Heavy infestations are more common on older trees (Smith et al., 1997). This species is considered a serious pest by Beardsley and González (1975) and Miller and Davidson (1990). Talhouk (1975) suggested that it was a citrus pest of major economic importance with control measures usually required more than once each season in Australia, Argentina, Venezuela, Colombia, Florida, tropical Central America, Mexico, and China. He considered it to be an important pest requiring occasional control measures in Peru, Chile, and Brazil. Ebeling (1959) suggested that this pest is not a problem in temperate areas such as California. In Florida the spread of citrus snow scale began in 1963 after a major citrus kill, and it apparently was dispersed throughout the state on infested nursery stock (Simanton 1976). Dekle (1977) and Bullock and Brooks (1975) both considered this species to be a serious pest in Florida. The latter authors believed that the pest was exceeded in importance in Florida only by citrus rust mite and greasy spot disease. They supported their point with the following information: Prior to 1960 less than 1% of Florida's citrus groves contained this scale, but in 1972 50% of the groves were infested and 25% of these required extra chemical treatments specifically for this species. Infestations generally were confined to the trunk, scaffold limbs, and smaller branches, with only occasional infestations on fruit and leaves. Heavy infestations cause bark splitting, loss of large limbs, and sometimes tree death. Before the introduction of Aphytis lignanensis, two thorough scalacide applications were required each year for adequate control. Studies conducted by Muma (1970) in Florida showed that orange and grapefruit trees were severely attacked by the citrus snow scale, while tangerine trees were nearly immune. With the introduction of the Hong Kong variety of A. lingnanensis many thought that this parasite had achieved major success in controlling this devastating pest (Mead 1975). However, it is now evident that reduction of citrus snow scale populations to subeconomic levels has not been achieved; the situation in Florida is difficult to evaluate because of the introduction and natural occurrence of so many different strains of A. lingnanensis that are morphologically identical (Browning 1994). The lady beetle, Chilocorus circumdatus Gyllenhal, is reported to be a reasonably successful biological control agent in Australia (Smith et al. 1997). Balachowsky (1959) reported that orange, mandarin, and lime trees were severely attacked in Colombia and sometimes had premature leaf drop. Hearn (1979) found that SUNBURST, a moderately vigorous hybrid of Citrus reticulata and C. paradisi, was tolerant of this pest. Hangartner et al. (1976) demonstrated that a growth regulator reduced population sizes of this scale by interfering with larval molts, male metamorphosis, and female fertility (Miller & Davidson, 2005).
General Remarks: Detailed description and illustration by Williams & Watson (1988). Color photograph in Watson & Kondo (2022a). According to CABI (2017), U. citri is present in Malta as well as Portugal. However, Mifsud et al. (2014) carried out extensive field surveys in the Maltese Archipelago and did not find any evidence of U. citri. In addition, there appears to be no slide-mounted material deposited in museum collections to support the report of U. citri being present in Malta. U. citri is now regarded as absent from Malta by EFSA2018. CABI2017 also reported that Unaspis citri was not present in New Zealand, and that the record of its presence was invalid. The panel stated that reports of U. citri in Greece, Italy, and Spain are unreliable.

Illustrations

Citations

AbdRabEv2021: distribution, host, 39
AlayoS1976: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 14
AlmeidPeMa2018: distribution, host, 356
Alvara1939: description, economic importance, host, 147
ArgudiDo1984: biological control, distribution, host, 109
AriasRBr1995: host, life history, 1189-1195
Arnett1985: economic importance, taxonomy, 243
ArouaKaBe2019: distribution, host,
Auchin1913: distribution, host, 9
Balach1954e: biological control, description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 290-293
Balach1957c: distribution, host, 202
Balach1959a: distribution, host, 363
Ballou1912a: distribution, host, 420
Ballou1913: distribution, host, 63
Ballou1945: distribution, host, 96-97
BatcheWe1948: chemical control, distribution, host, taxonomy, 716
Beards1966: distribution, host, taxonomy, 558
Beatty1944: distribution, 126
Beingo1967: biological control, distribution, host, 77
BenDovSoBo2012: distribution, 68
Benass1977a: biological control, 1
BerlesLe1896: taxonomy, 348
BerlesLe1898a: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 125-127
Berry1959: distribution, 198
Bertel1956: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 313
BesheaTiHo1973: distribution, host, 14
BicheArMe2022: distribution, host, 507
Blanch1939: distribution, host, 82, 168
BockTa1995: distribution, host, 360
Bodenh1930: distribution, 17
Bodkin1922: distribution, 57
Borchs1937a: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 116-117, 243
Borchs1949d: taxonomy, 218
Borchs1950b: distribution, host, taxonomy, 196-197
Borchs1966: catalog, distribution, host, taxonomy, 105
Bourne1921: distribution, 14
Bovell1912: distribution, host, 402
BrooksTh1963: chemical control, distribution, economic importance, host, 279
BrooksWh1973: chemical control,
Brown1965: chemistry, 235-236
Bruner1930: biological control, distribution, 17
CaveMa1994: biological control, 5
CharleHe2002: distribution, taxonomy, 590,610
Chazea1984: biological control, distribution, host, iii
Chen1983: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 30-31, 119
Cheo1935: distribution, host, 96
Chou1982: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 67, 70-71
Chou1986: illustration, 464
Clause1933: distribution, host, 16, 25, 33
Cocker1893j: distribution, 256
Cocker1894: taxonomy, 33
Cocker1894d: taxonomy, 312
Cocker1895q: distribution, host, 62
Cocker1896a: description, distribution, economic importance, host, 256-257
Cocker1897p: distribution, host, 592
Cocker1899n: distribution, host, 30
Cocker1900k: host, taxonomy, 349
Cocker1902k: distribution, host, 456
Cohic1956: distribution, host, 7, 87
ColonFMe1998: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 130-131
Comsto1881a: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 313, 314
Comsto1883: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 97, 100
CoronaRu1992: chemical control, economic importance, host, life history, 49-50
CoronaRu1999: biological control, distribution, 81-82
CoronaRuJa2000: biological control, distribution, taxonomy, 277-278
CoronaRuMo1997: distribution, economic importance, 39, 40
CorseuSi1971: distribution, host, 111
CostaL1942: distribution, host, 272
Craw1896: distribution, host, 38
Crouze1971: distribution, economic importance, 200
CulikMaVe2008: distribution, host, 1-6
Dale1959: distribution, host, 12
Danzig1972: distribution, taxonomy, 221
Danzig1993: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 307, 309-310
DanzigPe1998: catalog, distribution, host, taxonomy, 367
DaoBeRo2016: entomopathogenic fungi, 1
DaoBeWa2018: distribution, illustration, key, morphology, phylogenetics, phylogeny, 82-95
DaoBeWa2023: diagnosis, distribution, host, key, 1022, 1029
DarvasAbCa1994: chemical control, 53
Dash1916: distribution, host, 42
DeBachRo1976: biological control, distribution, 178
DeBachRo1976a: biological control, distribution, host, 545
DeSant1979: biological control, 183, 330, 331
Dekle1965a: distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 1-2
Dekle1965c: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 14, 132
Dumble1954: distribution, host, 47, 90
EFSA2018: biology, control, diagnosis, distribution, host, taxonomy, 1-26
EFSA2021a: economic importance, host, 18
EMPPO1955: host, 299-301
EMPPO2004: life history, 43
Ebelin1959: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 206, 280
Essig1915a: distribution, host, 156
Fernal1903b: distribution, host, taxonomy, 214
FernanWa1997: biological control, host, 138
Ferris1936a: taxonomy, 23, 78
Ferris1937: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, SI-129
Ferris1942: taxonomy, SIV-446:63
Figuer1952: distribution, 210
Fleury1938: distribution, host, 30
FonsecAu1932a: distribution, host, taxonomy, 211-212
FrancoRuMa2011: distribution, 15,24
Frogga1902a: biological control, 903, 908, 910
Frogga1914: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 986-987
Frogga1915: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 61
Fulmek1943: biological control, catalog, distribution, 23
Gavril2018: reproduction, 244
GermaiAtBa2008: distribution, host, 129-135
GermaiAtBa2008: distribution, 129-135
GermaiDeLa2016: list of species, 3
GermaiVaMa2010: distribution, 127
Gerson1994: distribution, host, 71
GersonSc1981: biological control, economic importance, 201
Ghesqu1927: distribution, host, 313
GibsonCa1959: distribution, host, 69
Giliom1966: catalog, distribution, taxonomy, 425
Gill1982c: distribution, host, 1
GillMiDa1982: taxonomy, 6, 8, 11
Gomes1940: distribution, host, 83
GomesC1958: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 131-132
GomesCRe1947: distribution, host, 226
GomesCRe1948: distribution, host, 8
Gonzal1969: biological control, distribution, economic importance, 839
GonzalHeSi1991: distribution, host, 434
Gowdey1921: distribution, host, 24
GranarCl2003: distribution, host, 631
Green1915c: distribution, 44
GreenLa1923: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 123
GressiDj1950: biological control, distribution, 17, 18, 19
GuiradAmAr2003: chemical control, 329-335
Hall1924a: description, distribution, host, 26
Hall1946a: distribution, 549
Hargre1937: distribution, host, 516
Hart1896a: distribution, host, vi
Haywar1939: distribution, economic importance, host, 209-210
HernanNiMa2011: host, 379-380
HertinSi1972: biological control, distribution, 191
Hinckl1963: distribution, host, 66
HodgsoHi1990: distribution, host, 6
HodgsoLa2011: distribution, host, 26
Hoffma1927: distribution, host, 76
Houser1918a: taxonomy, 160
HowardOl1985: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 65
HowellWi1976: distribution, economic importance, 188
Hua2000: distribution, host, 161-162
HuangPo1998: biological control, 1894
Huergo1908: taxonomy, 11, 16
JansenAl2023: dispersal, host, 28,34
JerezR1983: biological control, distribution, host, 83-91
Jones1917: distribution, host, 9
Kalsho1981: description, distribution, illustration, 173-174
Kondo2008a: distribution, host, 29
Kondo2010: distribution, host, 2
KondoKa1995: distribution, host, 57
KondoWa2022a: distribution, host, list, 20
Kotins1910: distribution, host, 128
KozarWa1985: catalog, distribution, 88
Kuhmin1970: distribution, economic importance, host, 95
Kuwana1917a: distribution, host, taxonomy, 15
Kuwana1923b: taxonomy, 3
Kuwana1926: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 41, 43-44
Laing1929a: distribution, host, taxonomy, 480
Laing1933: distribution, host, 676
Lamb1974: distribution, host, 44
LeonKo2017: biological control, chemical control, diagnosis, host, illustration, natural enemies, 64-66
Leonar1901a: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 563
Leonar1914: distribution, host, taxonomy, 188
Lepage1938: catalog, distribution, host, 398
LepageGi1942: distribution, host, 450
Lever1945: distribution, host, 43, 369
LincanHoCa2010: distribution, host, 5
Lindin1910: taxonomy, 152
Lindin1912b: taxonomy, 106
Lindin1934: taxonomy, 64
Lindin1935: taxonomy, 131
Lindin1943b: taxonomy, 265
LitBa1994: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 379, 384
LitBa2014: distribution, host, 1
LiuWa1996: key,
Lizery1938: distribution, host, 343, 345, 354
LuacesOjMo2018: chemical control,
MacGil1921: distribution, host, taxonomy, 311, 359
Maleno1916b: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 188-192
MalipaDuSm2000: biological control, distribution, economic importance, 2, 3, 9
Malump2012b: distribution, host, 211,212
Malump2014a: distribution, host, 79
Mamet1943a: distribution, host, 168
Mamet1949: catalog, distribution, host, taxonomy, 50-51
Mamet1950: distribution, host, 23
Marlat1900b: distribution, host, 271
MartinLa2011: catalog, distribution, 43
MartinWoCu2022: distribution, host, 8
Martor1939: distribution, host, 193
Martor1976: distribution, host, 60, 61, 63, 66, 166,
Maskel1885a: distribution, host, 23
Maskel1887a: distribution, host, 54
Maskel1893b: distribution, host, 211
Maxwel1901: distribution, host, 58
Maxwel1902: distribution, host, 251
MayneGh1934: distribution, host, 34
Medler1980: distribution, 90
Merril1953: distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 82-83
MerrilCh1923: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 194, 214
Meurge2011: distribution, 81
MifsudMaRu2014: distribution, 518
MilleHeCa2016: distribution, economic importance, host, natural enemies, 144
Miller2005: distribution, 488
MillerDa1990: economic importance, taxonomy, 305
MillerDa2005: description, distribution, economic importance, host, 392
MiskimBo1970: distribution, host, 31
Miyosh1926: distribution, host, 306
Morgan1889a: distribution, host, 349
Morgan1892: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 14-15
Mosque1976: distribution, host, 74, 101
Mosque1979a: biological control, distribution, economic importance, host, 53-56
MoutiaMa1947: distribution, host, 10
MyartsRu2000: biological control, distribution, host, 11, 16, 25
MyartsRuCo2016: distribution, economic importance, host, natural enemies, 82-89
Myers1922: distribution, 200
Nakaha1982: distribution, host, taxonomy, 84
Nakaha1983: distribution, host, 16
NakahaMi1981: distribution, 36
Newste1907a: chemical control, description, distribution, host, 9
Nishid2002: catalog, 143
NiuFe2019: key, 579
NormarOkMo2019: distribution, genebank, host, phylogeny, taxonomy, 34, 37, S6
OConno1949: distribution, host, 52, 55, 88
Ogilvi1928: distribution, host, 26
OteroCaMo1996: distribution, economic importance, host, 531
Paik1978: distribution, host, taxonomy, 398
PerezG2008: distribution, 215
PooleGe1997: distribution, 352
Porter1934: distribution, 123
PrunaAl1973: distribution, host, 3
RamosPeKo2017: illustration, key, 8148, 8149
RangelGo1945: distribution, taxonomy, 25
Rao1949: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 59, 60, 61, 62, 64,
Reyne1961: distribution, host, 121
Reyne1964: distribution, host, 97
RileyHo1891: distribution, host, 214
Ronna1933: distribution, host, 334
RosenDe1979: biological control, distribution, 765
Russo1927: distribution, host, 440
SchildSc1928: taxonomy, 266
Schmid1939: taxonomy, 147
SelhimBr1977: biological control, distribution, host, 477
SilvadGoGa1968: catalog, distribution, host, 181
Simant1973: control,
Simmon1957: catalog, distribution, host, 6
SmithBeBr1997: biological control, description, distribution, economic importance, host, illustration, life history, taxonomy, 70-72
SmithFl1949: taxonomy, 996
SmithHu1973: biological control, distribution, host, 34
SmithSmSm1998: biological control, 136
SoaresElSc1997: distribution, host, 449
Soukup1945: distribution, host, 281
South1910: distribution, host, 20
Squire1972: distribution, host, 249-268
Suh2016: distribution, host, key, 319, 331
Summer1934: distribution, host, 20-22, 190
TakagiRo1981: biological control, distribution, 318
Tanaka1981a: distribution, 90-91
Tang1984b: host, 130
Tang1986: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 131, 136-137, 286
Tang2001: taxonomy, 4
Tao1999: distribution, host, 121
TerGri1969a: distribution, host, 25
Thomso1922: distribution, 331
Tikhon1966: distribution, host, 102
TippinBe1975: distribution, host, 50
Townse1896: distribution, host, 11, 13
Trabut1910: distribution, host, 47
Trujil1942: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 199-201
Tryon1889: biological control, description, distribution, 127-128
Vilard1974: distribution, host, taxonomy, 76-78
Ward1890: economic importance, 305
Watson2001: list, 177
Watson2002: taxonomy, 117
WatsonAdSh2015: diagnosis, host, 7
WatsonBe1937: chemical control, description, distribution, economic importance, taxonomy, 28
WatsonKo2022a: biology, control, diagnosis, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 542
Willia2017a: catalog, list of species, 218, 220
WilliaBu1987: distribution, host, 96
WilliaWa1988: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 247-248
WilliaWi1988: distribution, host, 74
Wilson1917: distribution, 44
Wise1977: distribution, 109
Wolcot1948: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 174-175
WolffCo1994: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 133-136
Wu1935: distribution, host, taxonomy, 199-200, 204
XuZeLv2021: entomopathogenic fungi, 1
Yang1982: distribution, taxonomy, 238
YunusHo1980: distribution, host, 35, 153
YustCe1956: distribution, host, 435
ZarkanApTu2021: distribution, host, 171
Zeng2000: distribution, taxonomy, 51