Valid Names Results
Diaspis echinocacti (Bouché, 1833) (Diaspididae: Diaspis)Nomenclatural History
- Coccus luteus Lancry 1791: 484. Type data: FRANCE: on Opuntia sp.. Unknown type status, unknown, junior synonym (discovered by Danzig1993, 375). Notes: Types presumed lost.
- Diaspis Calyptroides Costa 1829: 20-21. Type data: ITALY: on Cactus (=Opuntia) cochenillifer. Syntypes, female, junior synonym (discovered by Targio1868, 735). Notes: Type material probably lost (Pellizzari, personal communication to Yair Ben-Dov, 1990).
- Aspidiotus Echinocacti Bouché 1833: 53. Type data: GERMANY: Berlin, on Echinocactus sp.. Syntypes, unknown, accepted valid name Notes: Type-material lost (Sachtleben, 1944).
- Aspidiotus Calyptroides (Costa, 1829); Targioni Tozzetti 1868: 735. change of combination
- Chermes echinocacti (Bouché, 1833); Boisduval 1868: 281. change of combination
- Diaspis cacti Comstock 1883: 91-94. Type data: UNITED STATES: New York, Ithaca, in a conservatory, on cactus, by J. Comstock. Syntypes, female, Type depository: Albany: New York State Museum Insect Collection, New York, USA; Washington: United States National Entomological Collection, U.S. National Museum of Natural History, District of Columbia, USA; junior synonym (discovered by Ferris1937, SI-36). Illustr.
- Diaspis cacti opuntiae Cockerell 1893j: 256. Type data: JAMAICA: Kingston, on Opuntia sp. Syntypes, female, Type depository: Washington: United States National Entomological Collection, U.S. National Museum of Natural History, District of Columbia, USA; junior synonym (discovered by Cocker1894g, 127-128).
- Diaspis opuntiae Newstead 1893d: 188. Type data: GUYANA: Demerara, on Opuntia elongata. Syntypes, female, Type depository: London: The Natural History Museum, England, UK; junior synonym (discovered by Cocker1894g, 127-128). Illustr.
- Diaspis opunticola Newstead 1893: 281. replacement name that is a synonym (discovered by Cocker1894g, 127-128). Replacement name for Diaspis opuntiae
- Diaspis cacti opunticola Newstead, 1893; Cockerell 1894e: 462. change in status (level)
- Diaspis calyptroides cacti Comstock, 1883; Charmoy 1899: 29. change in status (level)
- Diaspis calyptroides opuntiae Cockerell, 1893; Cockerell & Parrott 1899: 277. change in status (level)
- Diaspis echinocacti cacti Comstock, 1883; Fernald 1903b: 230. change in status (level)
- Diaspis echinocacti opuntiae Cockerell, 1893; Fernald 1903b: 230. change in status (level)
- Diaspis echinocacti (Bouché, 1833); Fernald 1903b: 229. change of combination
- Chionaspis cacti (Comstock, 1883); Autran 1907: 152. change of combination
- Diaspis lutea (Lancry, 1791); Lindinger 1943: 249. change of combination
- Diaspis dactylproides Costa, 1829; Bodenheimer 1949: 87. misspelling of species epithet
- Carulaspis calyptroides (Costa, 1829); Bodenheimer 1953a: 164. change of combination
- Diplacaspis echinocacti Mann 1969: 150. lapsus calami Notes: According to Neave (1939, Nomencl. Zool. 2: 105), Jacobson proposed Diplacaspis as a new name for Diaspis Lacordaire, 1848, the latter being preoccupied by Diaspis Costa, 1828, in the Hemiptera. The name Diplacaspis Jacobson (1924, Rev. Russe d'Ent. 18: 239), representing a genus of Coleoptera, was interjected into Coccoidea literature by Mann, who published the new combination, Diplacaspis echinocacti (Bouche)." Diplacaspis Jacobson of Mann presumably was a lapsus for Diaspis Costa.
Common Names
- cactus scale Blicke1965 Merril1953
- cochenille des cactées Foldi2001
- prickly pear scale Gill1997
- cochonilha de escama da palma forrageira KondoWa2022b
- escama del nopal KondoWa2022b
- saboten-maru-kaigaramushi KondoWa2022b
Ecological Associates
Hosts:
Families: 10 | Genera: 55
- Aizoaceae
- Lithops | MazzeoSuRu2008
- Arecaceae
- Dypsis lutescens | CaliskUl2017
- Asteraceae
- Chuquiraga | Watson2002a
- Cactaceae
- Acanthocereus | MillerDa2005
- Acanthocereus tetragonus | MilleHeCa2016
- Ancistrocactus | MillerDa2005
- Ariocarpus | MillerDa2005
- Astrophytum | MillerDa2005 Watson2002a
- Brasiliopuntia brasiliensis | CarnerPe1986 | (= Opuntia brasiliensis)
- Carnegiea gigantea | CostaL1936 | (= Cereus giganteus)
- Cephalocereus | MillerDa2005
- Cereus | MillerDa2005
- Cereus hildmannianus | LimaGa2001
- Cereus jamacaru | LimaGa2001
- Cereus repandus | CarnerPe1986 | (= Cereus peruvianus)
- Copiapoa | MillerDa2005
- Corryocactus | Borchs1966 Watson2002a | (= Erdisia)
- Coryphantha | MillerDa2005
- Dendrocereus | MillerDa2005
- Disocactus | MillerDa2005 | (= Nopalxochia)
- Echinocactus | AhmadGh1972 Bouche1833 Hua2000 MillerDa2005 | (= Echinofossulocactus)
- Echinocereus | MillerDa2005 | (= Wilcoxia)
- Echinopsis | MillerDa2005
- Echinopsis macrogona | CostaL1936 | (= Cereus macrogonus)
- Epiphyllum | Borchs1966 MillerDa2005
- Epiphyllum oxypetalum | LimaGa2001
- Facheiroa squamosa | LimaGa2001 | (= Cereus squamosus)
- Ferocactus | MillerDa2005
- Ferocactus macrodiscus | CaliskUl2017
- Gymnocalycium | JiSu2012
- Harrisia | MillerDa2005 Watson2002a
- Hatiora | Watson2002a
- Hylocereus | Borchs1966 MillerDa2005
- Leuchtenbergia | MillerDa2005
- Lobivia | MillerDa2005
- Mammillaria | Borchs1966 MillerDa2005
- Melocactus | Borchs1966 MillerDa2005
- Myrtillocactus | MillerDa2005
- Nopalea cochenillifera | CarnerPe1986 GomezM1937 | (= Opuntia cochenillifera)
- Opuntia | BenDov2013 GomezM1937 MillerDa2005
- Opuntia dillenii | Tao1999
- Opuntia engelmannii | CoronaRuTr1998
- Opuntia ficus-indica | Martin1983 Nakaha1981a | (= Opuntia vulgaris)(= Opuntia elongata)
- Opuntia humifusa | GomezM1937
- Opuntia leucotricha | GomezM1937
- Opuntia microdasys | Martin1983
- Opuntia monacantha | Mamet1943a
- Opuntia occidentalis | Martin1983
- Opuntia stricta | GomezM1937 Tao1999
- Opuntia tomentosa | GomezM1937
- Opuntia tuna | Mamet1943a
- Pachycereus | MillerDa2005 Watson2002a | (= Lemaireocereus) (= Lophocereus)
- Parodia | MillerDa2005
- Pelecyphora | MillerDa2005
- Peniocereus | MillerDa2005
- Peniocereus striatus | PadillMaNa2016
- Pereskia | MillerDa2005
- Pereskia grandifolia | LimaGa2001
- Pilosocereus gounellei | LimaGa2001
- Pilosocereus royenii | ColonFMe1998
- Pterocactus | Watson2002a
- Rebutia | MillerDa2005
- Schlumbergera | Watson2002a
- Schlumbergera truncata | MifsudMaRu2014 | (= Zygocactus truncatus)
- Sclerocactus | MillerDa2005
- Selenicereus megalanthus | MedinaKo2012
- Tacinga inamoena | LimaGa2001 | (= Opuntia inamoena)
- Thelocactus | MillerDa2005
- Trichocereus | MillerDa2005 Watson2002a
- Weberocereus | MillerDa2005
- Crassulaceae
- Cotyledon | MillerDa2005
- Dudleya | MillerDa2005
- Ebenaceae
- Diospyros abyssinica | WatsonOuKa2021
- Fabaceae
- Cassia | Watson2002a
- Portulacaceae
- Portulaca | Watson2002a
- Urticaceae
- Boehmeria caudata | SilvadGoGa1968
- Zygophyllaceae
- Zygophyllum xanthoxylum | Tao1999
Foes:
Families: 9 | Genera: 23
- Aphelinidae
- Aphytis | ImaneHaMo2022
- Aphytis chilensis | RosenDe1979
- Aphytis chrysomphali | RosenDe1979
- Aphytis debachi | RosenDe1979 ImaneHaMo2022
- Aphytis diaspidis | Balach1954e Fulmek1943 MyartsRu2000 | (= Aphytis fuscipennis)
- Aphytis holoxanthus | RosenDe1979
- Aphytis lingnanensis | RosenDe1979
- Aphytis maculicornis | AbdRab2001a
- Aphytis margaretae | MyartsRu2000 RosenDe1979
- Aphytis melinus | MyartsRu2000 RosenDe1979
- Aphytis mytilaspidis | ElirazRo1978
- Aphytis obscurus | RosenDe1979
- Aphytis opuntiae | RosenDe1979
- Aphytis paramaculicornis | RosenDe1979
- Aphytis proclia | Balach1954e
- Aphytis vandenboschi | RosenDe1979
- Encarsia | AhmadGh1972 | (= Prospaltella)
- Encarsia citrina | GomezM1937 HuangPo1998 | (= Aspidiotiphagus citrinus)
- Encarsia lounsburyi | AbdRab2001a
- Encarsia subelongata | MyartsRuCo2016
- Paraphytis cochereaui | RosenDe1979
- Bdellidae
- Bdellidae | StathaKaDa2021
- Coccinellidae
- Calloeneis | Watson2002a
- Chilocorus | AhmadGh1972
- Chilocorus bipustulatus | ElAalaSb2023b
- Chilocorus nigritus | LimaGa2001
- Coccidophilus citricola | Watson2002a
- Curinus | Watson2002a
- Exochomus nigripennis | ElAalaSb2023b
- Pentilia egena | Watson2002a
- Pharoscymnus horni | Sankar1984
- Rhyzobius | RussoSi1994
- Rhyzobius lophanthae | BelgueBiBe2017 ImaneHaMo2022
- Scymnus loewii | ElAalaSb2023b
- Sticholotis | AhmadGh1972
- Zagreus bimaculosus | LimaGa2001
- Cybocephalidae
- Cybocephaluls | Lima2002
- Cybocephalus fodori | StathaKaDa2021 ImaneHaMo2022
- Cybocephalus refifrons | Balach1954e | including ssp. flaviceps
- Encyrtidae
- Plagiomerus | PanisPi2001a
- Plagiomerus diaspidis | Fulmek1943 PanisPi2001a ImaneHaMo2022
- Zaomma cestus | Prinsl1979
- Eupalopsellida
- Exothorhis echinocactii | Watson2002a
- Eupalopsellidae
- Saniosulus nudus | Watson2002a
- Phlaeothripidae
- Aleurodothrips fasciapennis | Watson2002a
- Pyralidae
- Laetilia coccidivora | VanegaLoRo2018
Geographic Distribution
Countries: 77
- Algeria | Newste1901b
- Antigua and Barbuda
- Antigua | Maxwel1902
- Argentina | Autran1907
- Buenos Aires | Watson2002a
- Catamarca | Watson2002a
- Cordoba | Watson2002a
- Formosa | Watson2002a
- Jujuy | Watson2002a
- La Rioja | Watson2002a
- Mendoza | Watson2002a
- Salta | Watson2002a
- San Juan | Watson2002a
- Santiago del Estero | Watson2002a
- Tucuman | Watson2002a
- Armenia | TerGri1969a
- Ascension Island | Watson2002a
- Australia
- Queensland | Watson2002a
- Azores | FrancoRuMa2011
- Bahamas | Merril1953
- Barbados | Maxwel1902
- Brazil | MerrilCh1923
- Alagoas | LimaGa2001
- Bahia | SilvadGoGa1968
- Parana | SilvadGoGa1968
- Pernambuco | LimaGa2001
- Rio Grande do Sul | CostaL1936
- Rio de Janeiro | CostaL1936
- Sao Paulo | SilvadGoGa1968
- Cameroon | Watson2002a
- Canary Islands | CarnerPe1986 MatileOr2001
- Cape Verde | Watson2002a
- Chile | GonzalCh1968
- Atacama | Watson2002a
- Coquimbo | Watson2002a
- O'Higgins | Watson2002a
- Santiago | Watson2002a
- China | Tang1977
- Beijing (=Peking) | Hua2000
- Fujian (=Fukien) | Hua2000
- Guangdong (=Kwangtung) | Tao1999
- Guangxi (=Kwangsi) | Hua2000
- Henan (=Honan) | Hua2000
- Hunan | Hua2000
- Jiangsu (=Kiangsu) | Tao1999 Watson2002a
- Jiangxi (=Kiangsi) | Hua2000
- Nei Monggol (=Inner Mongolia) | Tao1999
- Shanxi (=Shansi) | Hua2000
- Xizang (=Tibet) | Tao1999
- Yunnan | Tao1999
- Zhejiang (=Chekiang) | Hua2000
- Corsica | FoldiGe2018
- Croatia | Schmid1973
- Cuba | MerrilCh1923
- Curaçao | Reyne1964
- Cyprus | UlgentHo2019
- Denmark | KozarzRe1975
- Egypt | AbdRab2001a Newste1911
- France | DanzigPe1998
- Georgia (Republic of) | BatsanKaKi2017 Hadzib1941
- Germany | Bouche1833
- Gibraltar | Giliom1966
- Greece | ArgyriStMo1976 StathaKaDa2021
- Guinea | Watson2002a
- Guyana (=British Guiana) | Newste1893d Watson2002a
- Haiti | Watson2002a
- Hawaiian Islands | MillerDa2005
- Kauai | Nakaha1981a
- Maui | Nakaha1981a
- Niihau | Nakaha1981a
- Oahu | Nakaha1981a
- Hungary | KozarKoFe2013 Ordogh1976
- India | Maskel1896a
- Karnataka | VarshnMo1987
- Kerala | Sankar1984
- Maharashtra | VarshnMo1987
- Odisha (=Orissa) | VarshnMo1987
- Tamil Nadu | Ramakr1919
- Iran | Bodenh1944b Moghad2013a
- Iraq | DanzigPe1998
- Israel | Bytins1966
- Italy | Leonar1920 LongoMaPe1995
- Sicily | Costan1950 LongoMaPe1995
- Jamaica | Cocker1893j
- Japan | Tao1999
- Kenya | WatsonOuKa2021
- Lithuania | Vengel1965
- Luxembourg | Gertso2016
- Madagascar | Watson2002a
- Madeira Islands | Giliom1966
- Malta | Borg1932 MifsudMaRu2014
- Mauritius | MerrilCh1923 WilliaWi1988
- Mexico | MerrilCh1923 MillerDa2005
- Baja California Norte | PadillMaNa2016
- Chiapas | PadillMaNa2016
- Durango | PadillMaNa2016
- Jalisco | Essig1910a
- Morelos | PadillMaNa2016 VanegaLoRo2018
- Nayarit | PadillMaNa2016
- Nuevo Leon | PadillMaNa2016
- Puebla | PadillMaNa2016
- San Luis Potosi | PadillMaNa2016
- Sonora | PadillMaNa2016
- Tamaulipas | CoronaRuTr1998
- Veracruz | PadillMaNa2016
- Yucatan | PadillMaNa2016
- Morocco | ElAalaSb2023a Giliom1966
- Mozambique | Almeid1971
- Netherlands Antilles | KondoWa2022b
- New Caledonia | MilleHeCa2016
- Pakistan | AhmadGh1972
- Papua New Guinea | WilliaWa1988
- Peru | Watson2002a
- Poland | LagowsGo2020
- Portugal | Watson2002a
- Puerto Rico & Vieques Island
- Puerto Rico | Maxwel1902
- Reunion | GermaiMiPa2014 Mamet1957 WilliaWi1988
- Romania | FetykoKoDa2010 Teodor2018
- Russia | Borchs1937
- Saint Croix | Nakaha1983
- Saint Helena | Giliom1966
- Sardinia | LongoMaPe1995 Paoli1915 PellizFo1996
- South Africa | Brain1919
- South Korea | DanzigPe1998
- Spain | GomezM1937
- Taiwan | Tao1999
- Trinidad and Tobago | Watson2002a
- Tunisia | Mamet1943a
- Turkey | Bodenh1949 KaymakYa2017
- Turkmenistan | DanzigPe1998
- U.S. Virgin Islands | Nakaha1983
- United Kingdom
- England | Newste1901b
- United States
- Alabama | MillerDa2005
- Arizona | Howard1895a MillerDa2005
- California | MerrilCh1923 MillerDa2005
- Connecticut | Britto1923
- District of Columbia | MillerDa2005
- Florida | MerrilCh1923 MillerDa2005
- Georgia | Howell1975a
- Indiana | Amos1933
- Iowa | Cocker1894g
- Kansas | Lawson1917 MillerDa2005
- Kentucky | MillerDa2005
- Louisiana | Merril1953 MillerDa2005
- Maryland | MillerDa2005
- Massachusetts | MerrilCh1923
- Michigan | MillerDa2005
- Mississippi | MillerDa2005
- Missouri | MillerDa2005
- New Jersey | MillerDa2005
- New Mexico | MillerDa2005 Newste1901b
- New York | Comsto1883 MillerDa2005
- North Carolina | MillerDa2005
- Ohio | MillerDa2005 Sander1904a
- Oklahoma | MillerDa2005
- Oregon | MillerDa2005
- Pennsylvania | MillerDa2005
- Tennessee | LambdiWa1980
- Texas | Herric1911 MillerDa2005
- Virginia | Merril1953 MillerDa2005
- Wyoming | MillerDa2005
- Uruguay | Giliom1966
- Venezuela
- Venezuelan Antilles | Watson2002a
- Vietnam | Suh2016
Keys
- MoghadWa2021: pp.105 ( Adult (F) ) [Diaspis in Iran]
- Moghad2021: pp.376 ( Adult (F) ) [Diaspis in Iran]
- SuhJi2009: pp.1041-1043 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of armored scales intercepted on imported plants (slide mounted females) ]
- MillerDa2005: pp.29-30 ( Adult (F) ) [Field Key to Economic Armored Scales]
- ColonFMe1998: pp.90 ( ) [Key to species of Diaspis of Puerto Rico]
- Gill1997: pp.124 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to California species of Diaspis]
- WilliaWa1988: pp.100 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of Diaspis in the tropical South Pacific Region]
- Chou1982: pp.118 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to Chinese species of Diaspis]
- Danzig1971d: pp.844 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of family Diaspididae]
- Schmut1959: pp.178 ( Adult (F) ) [Bestimmungstabelle der deutschen Diaspis-Arten]
- Ezzat1958: pp.245 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to Diaspis species of Egypt]
- McKenz1956: pp.31 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to the species of Diaspis Costa]
- Balach1954e: pp.177 ( Adult (F) ) [Tableau d'indentification des espèces du Diaspis Costa]
- Hall1946a: pp.515 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of Diaspis]
- Ferris1942: pp.SIV-446:51 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of Diaspis]
- Archan1937: pp.83 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of Diaspis]
- Fullaw1932: pp.95 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of Hawaiian Diaspinae]
- MacGil1921: pp.320 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of Diaspis] Key as: Diaspis calyptroides
- Newste1901b: pp.152 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of Diaspis]
Remarks
- Systematics: There is much uncertainty about the validity of Diaspis echinocacti Bouché, 1833 as a valid name. In 1791 Lancry described Coccus luteus as a small white diaspidid on cactus. This name was unused until 1943c when Lindinger cited it as the senior synonym of both D. echinocacti and D. calyptroides (Costa, 1829). Aspidiotus calyptroides(=D. calyptroides) was first considered as a synonym of D. echinocacti by Targioni Tozzetti (1868) who cited D. calyptroides as the senior name, but Fernald (1903b) considered D. calyptroides as the junior synonym and variable usages of those names both as the junior and senior synonym were cited from then on. The initial use of D. echinocacti as the senior name could be explained by confusion over the date of the Costa publication. It was considered by some to be published in 1835, not in 1829. This issue was resolved by D'Erasmo (1949) and Option 1247 of the ICZN. Though Borchsenius (1966) considered D. luteus to be incertae sedis, more recent authors have considered the three names, echinocacti, luteus and calyptroides synonymous (Morrison & Morrison, 1966 and Danzig, 1993). Morrison & Morrison (1966) acknowledge Lindinger's work, but stated that "for more than 60 years the majority of coccid workers have cited echinocacti Bouché, 1833, as the type species of Diaspis Costa." Many authors considered D. echinocacti the senior name including Bodenheimer (1924), Ferris (1937), Balachowsky (1954e), Gill (1997) Gómez-Menor Ortega (1937, 1965, 1967) and Mamet (1949). Based on Morrison & Morrison (1966), Danzig (1993) cited D. calyptroides and D. luteus as nomina oblita and retained D. echinocacti as the senior name. According to the most recent rules, a nomen oblitum is described as a "senior synonym or homonym [which] has not been used as a valid name after 1899, and the junior synonym or homonym has been used for a particular taxon as its presumed valid name, in at least 25 works, published by at least 10 authors in the immediately preceding 50 years and encompassing a span of not less than 10 years." In this instance, it seems clear that since D. calyptroides was used as a senior name over the years by several authors (MacGillivray 1921, Balachowsky 1927, Lupo 1938, Bodenheimer 1949, Silva d'Araujo et al. 1968) and D. luteus was cited as the senior name by Lindinger (1943c, 1949, 1957 and 1958) that neither name meets the criteria of a nomen oblitum. Because D. echinocacti is so widely used and because D. calyptroides and D. luteus have only rarely been treated as the senior name, a petition should be written to the Commission to decide the issue. Until that time, we will continue general usage of D. echinocacti realizing full well that D. luteus has seniority. Diaspis echinocacti differs from all the other species in the Pacific area in possessing a prominent pair of median lobes which are rounded and, although they may diverge, they do not form a deep notch at the apex of pygidium. The dorsal ducts are numerous on segments 5 and 6, where they are particularly conspicuous in compact submedian groups (Williams & Watson, 1988).
- Structure: Female scale approximately circular, rather thin, grayish white to greenish white, distinct median carina or ridge; exuviae terminal (Merrill & Chapin, 1923). Slide mounted adult female differs from most species of Diaspis in possessing a prominent pair of median lobes that are rounded and, although they may diverge, they do not form a deep notch at the apex of the pygidium. Dorsal ducts are numerous on segments V and VI, where they form conspicuous compact submedian groups (Williams & Watson 1988). Male cover linear and parallel-sided. Adult male is linear, oblong and elongate, while exuviae located in the anterior is yellow. The sides of the male cover are almost parallel and covered with white wax. Anterior of the male scale bears a brown exuviae while posteriorly the distance between the sides is enlarged. (Imane, et al., 2022)
- Biology: Description of life history by Oetting (1984). Lima & Gama (2001) report the dissemination of the neonate scale transported on the body surface of the predators Chilocorus nigrita and Zagreus bimaculosus. The only definitive study on the life history of this species is by Oetting (1984). He found "that development from the egg to adult required from 23 to 26 days under constant 27 C or greenhouse conditions with males requiring 1 to 2 days longer than females. Adult females had a preoviposition period of 12 to 23 days followed by 1 to 2 months of oviposition." An individual female laid about 100 to 200 eggs. The species is reported to have 2 generations each year in greenhouses in Moscow, USSR (Saakyan Baranova 1954). It frequently is found on the pads and fruit of its cactus host; it is occasionally reported on the subterranean crown and roots. (Miller & Davidson, 2005).
- Economic Importance: Miller & Davidson (1990) list this insect as a serious and widespread pest. Williams & Watson (1988) state that this insect is found wherever species of Cactaceae are grown. Discussion of economic importance also by Russo & Siscaro (1994). Damage appears to be variable. Many publications state that the cactus scale has little or no effect on its host, while others record it as an important pest. This variation probably reflects the presence or absence of natural enemies and/or the susceptibility of the various host plants. According to Russo and Siscaro (1994) this species recently has become a problem on prickly pear (Opuntia ficus-indica) on some farms in Sicily, requiring specific measures of chemical control. Feeding resulted in the presence of chlorotic areas on the fruit. The encyrtid Plagiomerus diaspidis was the most effective natural enemy in the study area, giving rates of parasitism greater than 40%. This species is considered to be an important world pest by Miller and Davidson (1990). (Miller & Davidson, 2005).
- General Remarks: Detailed description and illustration by Ferris (1937).
Illustrations
Citations
- AbdRab1999: biological control, distribution, 1119
- AbdRab2001a: biological control, distribution, host, 175, 176
- AbdRabEv2021: distribution, host, 34
- AbouEl2001: biological control, distribution, host, 187
- AhmadGh1972: biological control, distribution, host, 85
- AlbuquSiMe2023: control,
- AlbuquSiRa2023: biology, control, illustration,
- Ali1970: catalog, distribution, host, taxonomy, 15, 16
- Almeid1971: distribution, host, 10
- Amos1933: distribution, host, 207
- Amos1933a: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 211
- AmouroCrGe2017: phylogenetics, phylogeny, 3
- AndersWuGr2010: phylogeny, taxonomy, 997-1003
- Archan1937: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 83, 85-86
- ArgyriStMo1976: biological control, distribution, host, 26
- Arnett1985: economic importance, 241
- Arruda1983: taxonomy, 274
- Arruda2002: biological control, chemical control, description, life history, i
- Autran1907: distribution, host, 152
- Baker1976: host, life history, 3
- Balach1954e: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 177, 189-192, 194
- BatsanKaKi2017: distribution, host, 258
- BazaroSh1971: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 138-140
- Beatty1944: distribution, host, 127
- BelgueBiBe2017: biological control, natural enemies, 122, 127, 128
- BeltraDaCa2022: host,
- BenDov2012: catalog, distribution, host, 30, 44
- BenDov2013: distribution, illustration, 72
- Benass1961: structure, 332
- BesheaTiHo1973: distribution, host, 10
- Bibby1961: distribution, host, 330
- BicheArMe2022: distribution, host, 505
- Blicke1965: taxonomy, 290, 307
- Bodenh1924: distribution, host, 38
- Bodenh1944b: distribution, host, 95
- Bodenh1949: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 87, 91-93
- Bodenh1953: distribution, host, taxonomy, 4-5
- Bodenh1953a: taxonomy, 164
- Boisdu1868: distribution, host, 281
- Borchs1937: distribution, host, taxonomy, 104, 105, 117
- Borchs1950b: distribution, host, taxonomy, 207
- Borchs1966: catalog, distribution, host, taxonomy, 170, 171, 372
- Borchs1973: distribution, host, taxonomy, 277
- Borg1932: distribution, host, 12
- Bouche1833: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 53
- Bouche1834: distribution, host, taxonomy, 15
- Brain1919: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 223-224
- Brain1929: distribution, host, 142
- Britto1923: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 366, 368
- Brown1965: structure, 278
- Burmei1835: distribution, taxonomy, 68
- Butche1959: distribution, host, 363
- Bytins1966: distribution, economic importance, host, 18, 27, 28
- CaliskUl2017: distribution, host, taxonomy, 341
- CarnerPe1986: distribution, host, taxonomy, 37
- Charli1972: distribution, host, 215
- Charmo1899: taxonomy, 29
- Chou1982: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 118, 121-122
- Chou1986: illustration, 521
- Cocker1893j: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 256
- Cocker1894e: distribution, host, 462
- Cocker1894g: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 127-128
- Cocker1895p: distribution, host, 244
- Cocker1896a: description, distribution, host, 258
- Cocker1902d: host, taxonomy, 58
- Cocker1902t: distribution, host, 471
- Cocker1905b: taxonomy, 201
- CockerPa1899: distribution, host, 277
- ColonFMe1998: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 93
- Comsto1883: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 91-93
- Comsto1916: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 552-555, 556
- Costa1829: description, distribution, host, 20-21
- CostaL1936: distribution, host, taxonomy, 191
- Costan1950: distribution, host, taxonomy, 9
- Danzig1964: distribution, taxonomy, 650
- Danzig1971d: taxonomy, 844
- DanzigPe1998: catalog, distribution, host, taxonomy, 245-246
- Davis1896: distribution, host, 37
- DeBach1964d: biological control, distribution, host, 12, 13, 14
- DeSant1979: biological control, 233, 312, 314, 316
- Dekle1965c: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 11, 57
- DowellGiJe2016: distribution, 115
- ESKSAE1994: distribution, list, 114
- ElAalaSb2023a: biological control, natural enemies,
- ElAalaSb2023b: biological control, ecology, natural enemies,
- ElirazRo1978: biological control, distribution, host, 96
- Essig1910a: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 214-215
- Ezzat1958: distribution, taxonomy, 245
- Fernal1903b: distribution, host, taxonomy, 229, 230
- Ferris1936a: illustration, taxonomy, 21, 47
- Ferris1937: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, SI-36
- Ferris1941e: taxonomy, 43
- Ferris1942: taxonomy, SIV-446: 51
- FetykoKoDa2010: distribution, 296
- FogaraKo1977: 388, 389
- FogaraKo1977: distribution, host, 392
- Foldi2001: distribution, economic importance, 306, 308
- FoldiGe2018: distribution, 9
- FrancoRuMa2011: distribution, 11,23
- Fullaw1932: taxonomy, 95, 102
- Fulmek1943: biological control, catalog, 31
- Germai2008: distribution, 77-87
- GermaiMiPa2014: distribution, 23
- Gertso2016: distribution, host, 152
- GertssSc2020: distribution, host, 134
- GhabboMo1996: description, distribution, host, 345
- Ghauri1962: physiology, taxonomy, 5
- Giliom1966: catalog, distribution, host, 423
- Gill1982c: distribution, host, illustration, 1
- Gill1997: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 124, 127-128, 132, 2
- GomezM1937: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 186-189
- GomezM1965: distribution, host, 107
- GomezM1967G: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 107-108
- GomezM1967O: distribution, host, 132
- GomezM1968: distribution, host, 547
- Gonzal2016: diagnosis, distribution, illustration, 121-122
- GonzalCh1968: distribution, 110
- Goot1912: distribution, host, 287
- GordhLa1976: biological control, 132
- Gowdey1921: distribution, host, 25
- GrandpCh1899: distribution, host, 7, 9
- GruwelWoKo2016: phylogeny, 173-176
- Hadzib1941: distribution, host, 188
- Hadzib1983: distribution, host, 193, 275
- Hall1922: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 34-35
- Hall1923: distribution, host, 47, 58
- Hall1925: distribution, host, 25
- Hall1926a: taxonomy, 38
- Hall1946a: distribution, host, taxonomy, 515, 546, 549
- Haywar1944: distribution, host, 7
- Hempel1900a: distribution, host, taxonomy, 520
- Herric1911: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 37-38
- HertinSi1972: biological control, taxonomy, 180
- HodgesHo2002a: taxonomy, 118
- Howard1895a: distribution, host, 360
- Howell1975a: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 409-411
- HowellTi1977: description, 128
- HuHeWa1992: distribution, illustration, 193
- Hua2000: distribution, host, 150-151
- HuangPo1998: biological control, 1859
- JiSu2012: distribution, host, illustration, 1-5
- Kawai1980: distribution, host, 261
- KaymakYa2017: distribution, host, taxonomy, 45
- Kirkal1906a: taxonomy, 254
- Komosi1974: taxonomy, 345
- KondoWa2022a: distribution, host, list, 16
- KondoWa2022b: control, diagnosis, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 471-472
- KozarKoFe2013: distribution, taxonomy, 54
- KozarWa1985: catalog, distribution, 83
- KozarzRe1975: distribution, host, 32
- Kuwana1926: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 18-19, 45
- LagowsGo2020: distribution, 69
- LagowsGoHo2022: distribution, host, list, 9
- LambdiWa1980: distribution, host, 80
- Lancry1791: description, distribution, host, 484
- Lashin1956: distribution, host, taxonomy, 133
- Lawson1917: distribution, host, 243, 244
- Leonar1920: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 183, 196-199
- Lesche2000: biological control, 919
- Lima2002: biological control, 157
- LimaGa2001: distribution, host, 479-480
- Lindin1911a: host, 30
- Lindin1912b: description, distribution, taxonomy, 234-235
- Lindin1931: taxonomy, 124
- Lindin1935: taxonomy, 133
- Lindin1943c: taxonomy, 249
- Lindin1949: taxonomy, 212
- Lobdel1937: taxonomy, 78
- LongoMaPe1995: distribution, 126
- LongoMaPe1999a: distribution, 149
- Lupo1938: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 122, 123-129
- MacGil1921: distribution, host, taxonomy, 320
- Mamet1943a: distribution, host, 159
- Mamet1949: catalog, distribution, host, taxonomy, 35
- Mamet1957: distribution, 369
- Martin1983: distribution, host, 52
- MartinLa2011: catalog, distribution, 40
- Maskel1896a: distribution, host, 225
- Maskel1897: distribution, host, taxonomy, 298-299
- Matile1976: distribution, host, 308
- MatileOr2001: distribution, 190
- Maxwel1902: distribution, host, 249
- Maxwel1903: description, distribution, host, 44
- MazzeoSuRu2008: distribution, host, 149-152
- McCabeJo1980: taxonomy, 7
- McDani1971: distribution, host, illustration, 296, 299
- MedinaKo2012: host, 44
- Merril1953: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 45, 46
- MerrilCh1923: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 231-232
- MilleHeCa2016: distribution, economic importance, host, 139
- Miller2005: distribution, 487
- MillerDa1990: economic importance, taxonomy, 302
- MillerDa2005: description, distribution, economic importance, host, 186
- MiskimBo1970: distribution, host, 30
- Moghad2013a: distribution, host, 28-29
- Moghad2021: key, 376
- MoghadWa2021: diagnosis, distribution, economic importance, host, illustration, taxonomy, 105, 107-108
- MorseNo2006: phylogeny, taxonomy, 340
- MoutiaMa1947: distribution, host, 9
- MurakaAbCo1984: biological control, 242
- MyartsRu2000: biological control, distribution, 10, 12, 25
- Myers1925: biological control, 165
- Nakaha1981a: distribution, host, 397
- Nakaha1982: distribution, host, 31
- Nakaha1983: distribution, host, 10
- NakahaMi1981: distribution, 33
- Newste1893d: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 188
- Newste1893f: taxonomy, 281
- Newste1901b: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 152, 159-162
- Newste1907a: distribution, host, 15
- Newste1911: distribution, host, 87
- NikolsYa1966: biological control, 261
- Nishid2002: catalog, 141
- NormarOkMo2019: distribution, host, phylogeny, taxonomy, 19, 65, S6
- Oettin1984: biological control, description, distribution, economic importance, host, life history, 88-92
- Ordogh1976: distribution, host, 422
- Ordogh1977: distribution, host, 2438
- Osborn1898: distribution, host, 228
- PadillMaNa2016: distribution, host, 556
- PanisPi2001a: biological control, distribution, 423-427
- Paoli1915: distribution, host, 256
- Pelliz2011: distribution, 312
- PellizChMi2015: distribution, 61,72
- PellizFo1996: distribution, 121
- PellizGe2010a: distribution, economic importance, host, 477,501
- PerezG2008: distribution, 215
- PerezGCa1985: distribution, 316
- PicartMa2000: distribution, host, 16
- PlugatChYa2021: DNA, control,
- PooleGe1997: distribution, 348
- Porcel2001: illustration, structure, 141-152
- PriesnHo1940: biological control, distribution, host, 59, 66
- Prinsl1979: biological control, distribution, host, 73
- Ramakr1919: distribution, host, 622
- Ramakr1919a: distribution, host, taxonomy, 12
- Ramakr1926: taxonomy, 456
- Ramakr1930: distribution, host, taxonomy, 13-14
- Reali1954: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 27-49
- Reyne1964: distribution, host, 97
- RodrigNaVa2019: distribution, host, 468
- Rosen1973: biological control, 52
- RosenDe1978: biological control, 104
- RosenDe1979: biological control, distribution, 758
- RossHaOk2012: phylogeny, taxonomy, 199
- RussoSi1994: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 73-76
- Saakya1954: distribution, host, 28-29
- Sander1904a: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 52
- Sankar1984: biological control, distribution, host, 21-22
- Schmid1973: distribution, host, 441
- Schmut1959: distribution, host, 178, 179
- Signor1869d: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 434-435
- SilvadGoGa1968: biological control, catalog, distribution, host, 174
- SoaresDe1999: distribution, ecology, host, 141-142
- StathaKaDa2021: distribution, host, illustration, natural enemies, 49
- Suh2016: distribution, host, key, 320, 326
- SuhJi2009: distribution, illustration, taxonomy, 1039-1054
- SzitaFeBe2017: distribution, host, 469
- Tang1977: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 194
- Tang2001: taxonomy, 3
- Tao1999: distribution, host, 83
- Targio1867: distribution, host, 13
- Targio1868: taxonomy, 735
- Teodor2018: distribution, history, 42
- TerGri1954: distribution, host, 67
- TerGri1969a: distribution, host, 6, 93, 96
- TremblCa1972: physiology, 431
- UlgentErYa2022: distribution, host, S119
- UlgentHo2019: diagnosis, distribution, life history, 297
- VanegaLoRo2018: natural enemies, 125-127
- Varshn2002: distribution, host, 62
- VarshnMo1987: distribution, host, 177
- Vengel1965: distribution, taxonomy, 128
- WaltmaRaWi2016: distribution, 231
- Wang1980: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 162-164
- Watson2001: list, 177
- Watson2002: taxonomy, 117
- Watson2002a: biological control, description, distribution, economic importance, host, illustration, life history, taxonomy,
- Watson2021: distribution, 523
- WatsonOuKa2021: distribution, host, 81
- Westco1973: chemical control, distribution, host, 391
- Willia2015: taxonomy, 579
- Willia2017a: catalog, list of species, 222, 228
- WilliaBe2009: catalog, 20,30
- WilliaWa1988: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 104, 106-107
- WilliaWi1988: distribution, host, 64
- Wilson1917: distribution, host, 11
- Zahrad1990c: distribution, host, 16
- Zimmer1948: distribution, host, 412, 415
