Valid Names Results

Diaspis echinocacti (Bouché, 1833) (Diaspididae: Diaspis)

Nomenclatural History

Coccus luteus Lancry 1791: 484. Type data: FRANCE: on Opuntia sp.. Unknown type status, unknown, junior synonym (discovered by Danzig1993, 375). Notes: Types presumed lost.
Diaspis Calyptroides Costa 1829: 20-21. Type data: ITALY: on Cactus (=Opuntia) cochenillifer. Syntypes, female, junior synonym (discovered by Targio1868, 735). Notes: Type material probably lost (Pellizzari, personal communication to Yair Ben-Dov, 1990).
Aspidiotus Echinocacti Bouché 1833: 53. Type data: GERMANY: Berlin, on Echinocactus sp.. Syntypes, unknown, accepted valid name Notes: Type-material lost (Sachtleben, 1944).
Coccus (Aspidiotus) echinocacti Nördlinger, 1855; Nördlinger 1855: 517. change of combination and rank Notes: See Williams & Ben-Dov (2009: 20).
Aspidiotus Calyptroides (Costa, 1829); Targioni Tozzetti 1868: 735. change of combination
Chermes echinocacti (Nördlinger, 1855); Boisduval 1868: 281. change of combination
Diaspis cacti Comstock 1883: 91-94. Type data: UNITED STATES: New York, Ithaca, in a conservatory, on cactus, by J. Comstock. Syntypes, female, Type depository: Albany: New York State Museum Insect Collection, New York, USA; Washington: United States National Entomological Collection, U.S. National Museum of Natural History, District of Columbia, USA; junior synonym (discovered by Ferris1937, SI-36). Illustr.
Diaspis cacti opuntiae Cockerell 1893j: 256. Type data: JAMAICA: Kingston, on Opuntia sp. Syntypes, female, Type depository: Washington: United States National Entomological Collection, U.S. National Museum of Natural History, District of Columbia, USA; junior synonym (discovered by Cocker1894g, 127-128).
Diaspis opuntiae Newstead 1893d: 188. Type data: GUYANA: Demerara, on Opuntia elongata. Syntypes, female, Type depository: London: The Natural History Museum, England, UK; junior synonym (discovered by Cocker1894g, 127-128). Illustr.
Diaspis opunticola Newstead 1893: 281. replacement name that is a synonym (discovered by Cocker1894g, 127-128). Replacement name for Diaspis opuntiae
Diaspis cacti opunticola Newstead, 1893; Cockerell 1894e: 462. change in status (level)
Diaspis calyptroides cacti Comstock, 1883; Charmoy 1899: 29. change in status (level)
Diaspis calyptroides opuntiae Cockerell, 1893; Cockerell & Parrott 1899: 277. change in status (level)
Diaspis calyptroides Costa, 1829; Charmoy 1899: 29. revived combination (previously published)
Diaspis echinocacti cacti Comstock, 1883; Fernald 1903b: 230. change in status (level)
Diaspis echinocacti opuntiae Cockerell, 1893; Fernald 1903b: 230. change in status (level)
Diaspis echinocacti (Nördlinger, 1855); Fernald 1903b: 229. change of combination
Chionaspis cacti (Comstock, 1883); Autran 1907: 152. change of combination
Diaspis lutea (Lancry, 1791); Lindinger 1943: 249. change of combination
Diaspis dactylproides Costa, 1829; Bodenheimer 1949: 87. misspelling of species epithet
Carulaspis calyptroides (Costa, 1829); Bodenheimer 1953a: 164. change of combination
Diplacaspis echinocacti Mann 1969: 150. lapsus calami Notes: According to Neave (1939, Nomencl. Zool. 2: 105), Jacobson proposed Diplacaspis as a new name for Diaspis Lacordaire, 1848, the latter being preoccupied by Diaspis Costa, 1828, in the Hemiptera. The name Diplacaspis Jacobson (1924, Rev. Russe d'Ent. 18: 239), representing a genus of Coleoptera, was interjected into Coccoidea literature by Mann, who published the new combination, Diplacaspis echinocacti (Bouche)." Diplacaspis Jacobson of Mann presumably was a lapsus for Diaspis Costa.

Common Names

cactus scale Blicke1965 Merril1953
cochenille des cactées Foldi2001
prickly pear scale Gill1997
cochonilha de escama da palma forrageira KondoWa2022b
escama del nopal KondoWa2022b
saboten-maru-kaigaramushi KondoWa2022b

Ecological Associates

Hosts:

Families: 11 | Genera: 57

Aizoaceae

Lithops | MazzeoSuRu2008

Arecaceae

Dypsis lutescens | CaliskUl2017

Asparagaceae

Yucca | JansenAl2023

Asteraceae

Chuquiraga | Watson2002a

Cactaceae

Acanthocereus | MillerDa2005
Acanthocereus tetragonus | MilleHeCa2016
Ancistrocactus | MillerDa2005
Ariocarpus | MillerDa2005
Astrophytum | MillerDa2005 Watson2002a
Austrocylindropuntia subulata | JansenAl2023
Brasiliopuntia brasiliensis | CarnerPe1986 | (= Opuntia brasiliensis)
Carnegiea gigantea | CostaL1936 | (= Cereus giganteus)
Cephalocereus | MillerDa2005
Cereus | MillerDa2005
Cereus hildmannianus | LimaGa2001
Cereus jamacaru | LimaGa2001
Cereus repandus | CarnerPe1986 | (= Cereus peruvianus)
Copiapoa | MillerDa2005
Corryocactus | Borchs1966 Watson2002a | (= Erdisia)
Coryphantha | MillerDa2005
Dendrocereus | MillerDa2005
Disocactus | MillerDa2005 | (= Nopalxochia)
Echinocactus | AhmadGh1972 Bouche1833 Hua2000 MillerDa2005 | (= Echinofossulocactus)
Echinocereus | MillerDa2005 | (= Wilcoxia)
Echinocereus viridiflorus | JansenAl2023
Echinopsis | MillerDa2005
Echinopsis chamaecereus | JansenAl2023
Echinopsis macrogona | CostaL1936 | (= Cereus macrogonus)
Epiphyllum | Borchs1966 MillerDa2005
Epiphyllum oxypetalum | LimaGa2001
Facheiroa squamosa | LimaGa2001 | (= Cereus squamosus)
Ferocactus | MillerDa2005
Ferocactus macrodiscus | CaliskUl2017
Gymnocalycium | JiSu2012
Harrisia | MillerDa2005 Watson2002a
Hatiora | Watson2002a
Hylocereus | Borchs1966 MillerDa2005
Leuchtenbergia | MillerDa2005
Lobivia | MillerDa2005
Mammillaria | Borchs1966 MillerDa2005
Melocactus | Borchs1966 MillerDa2005
Melocactus levitestatus | JansenAl2023
Myrtillocactus | MillerDa2005
Nopalea cochenillifera | CarnerPe1986 GomezM1937 | (= Opuntia cochenillifera)
Opuntia | BenDov2013 GomezM1937 MillerDa2005
Opuntia azurea | JansenAl2023
Opuntia dillenii | Tao1999
Opuntia engelmannii | CoronaRuTr1998
Opuntia ficus-indica | Martin1983 Nakaha1981a | (= Opuntia vulgaris)(= Opuntia elongata)
Opuntia humifusa | GomezM1937
Opuntia leucotricha | GomezM1937
Opuntia microdasys | Martin1983
Opuntia monacantha | Mamet1943a
Opuntia occidentalis | Martin1983
Opuntia stricta | GomezM1937 Tao1999
Opuntia tomentosa | GomezM1937
Opuntia tuna | Mamet1943a
Pachycereus | MillerDa2005 Watson2002a | (= Lemaireocereus) (= Lophocereus)
Parodia | MillerDa2005
Pelecyphora | MillerDa2005
Peniocereus | MillerDa2005
Peniocereus striatus | PadillMaNa2016
Pereskia | MillerDa2005
Pereskia grandifolia | LimaGa2001
Pilosocereus gounellei | LimaGa2001
Pilosocereus royenii | ColonFMe1998
Pterocactus | Watson2002a
Rebutia | MillerDa2005
Schlumbergera | Watson2002a
Schlumbergera truncata | MifsudMaRu2014 | (= Zygocactus truncatus)
Sclerocactus | MillerDa2005
Selenicereus megalanthus | MedinaKo2012
Tacinga inamoena | LimaGa2001 | (= Opuntia inamoena)
Thelocactus | MillerDa2005
Trichocereus | MillerDa2005 Watson2002a
Weberocereus | MillerDa2005

Crassulaceae

Cotyledon | MillerDa2005
Dudleya | MillerDa2005

Ebenaceae

Diospyros abyssinica | WatsonOuKa2021

Fabaceae

Cassia | Watson2002a

Portulacaceae

Portulaca | Watson2002a

Urticaceae

Boehmeria caudata | SilvadGoGa1968

Zygophyllaceae

Zygophyllum xanthoxylum | Tao1999

Foes:

Families: 12 | Genera: 26

Aphelinidae

Aphytis | ImaneHaMo2022
Aphytis chilensis | RosenDe1979
Aphytis chrysomphali | RosenDe1979
Aphytis debachi | RosenDe1979 ImaneHaMo2022
Aphytis diaspidis | Balach1954e Fulmek1943 MyartsRu2000 | (= Aphytis fuscipennis)
Aphytis holoxanthus | RosenDe1979
Aphytis lingnanensis | RosenDe1979
Aphytis maculicornis | AbdRab2001a
Aphytis margaretae | MyartsRu2000 RosenDe1979
Aphytis melinus | MyartsRu2000 RosenDe1979
Aphytis mytilaspidis | ElirazRo1978
Aphytis obscurus | RosenDe1979
Aphytis opuntiae | RosenDe1979
Aphytis paramaculicornis | RosenDe1979
Aphytis proclia | Balach1954e
Aphytis vandenboschi | RosenDe1979
Encarsia | AhmadGh1972 | (= Prospaltella)
Encarsia citrina | GomezM1937 HuangPo1998 | (= Aspidiotiphagus citrinus)
Encarsia lounsburyi | AbdRab2001a
Encarsia subelongata | MyartsRuCo2016
Paraphytis cochereaui | RosenDe1979

Bdellidae

Bdellidae | StathaKaDa2021

Chrysopidae

Ceraeochrysa cincta | ElAalaRaBe2024

Coccinellidae

Calloeneis | Watson2002a
Chilocorus | AhmadGh1972
Chilocorus bipustulatus | ElAalaSb2023b
Chilocorus nigrita | ElAalaRaBe2024
Chilocorus nigritus | LimaGa2001
Coccidophilus | ElAalaRaBe2024
Coccidophilus citricola | Watson2002a
Curinus | Watson2002a
Exochomus nigripennis | ElAalaSb2023b
Pentilia egena | Watson2002a
Pharoscymnus horni | Sankar1984
Rhyzobius | RussoSi1994
Rhyzobius lophanthae | BelgueBiBe2017 ImaneHaMo2022
Scymnus loewii | ElAalaSb2023b
Sticholotis | AhmadGh1972
Zagreus bimaculosus | LimaGa2001

Cybocephalidae

Cybocephaluls | Lima2002
Cybocephalus fodori | StathaKaDa2021 ImaneHaMo2022
Cybocephalus refifrons | Balach1954e | including ssp. flaviceps

Encyrtidae

Plagiomerus | PanisPi2001a
Plagiomerus diaspidis | Fulmek1943 PanisPi2001a ImaneHaMo2022
Zaomma cestus | Prinsl1979

Eupalopsellida

Exothorhis echinocactii | Watson2002a

Eupalopsellidae

Saniosulus nudus | Watson2002a

Phlaeothripidae

Aleurodothrips fasciapennis | Watson2002a

Pleosporaceae

Alternaria murispora | ElAalaRaBe2024

Pyralidae

Laetilia coccidivora | VanegaLoRo2018

Syrphidae

Eosalpingogaster conopida | ElAalaRaBe2024

Geographic Distribution

Countries: 78

Algeria | Newste1901b

Antigua and Barbuda

Antigua | Maxwel1902

Argentina | Autran1907

Buenos Aires | Watson2002a
Catamarca | Watson2002a
Cordoba | Watson2002a
Formosa | Watson2002a
Jujuy | Watson2002a
La Rioja | Watson2002a
Mendoza | Watson2002a
Salta | Watson2002a
San Juan | Watson2002a
Santiago del Estero | Watson2002a
Tucuman | Watson2002a

Armenia | TerGri1969a

Ascension Island | Watson2002a

Australia

Queensland | Watson2002a

Azores | FrancoRuMa2011

Bahamas | Merril1953

Barbados | Maxwel1902

Brazil | MerrilCh1923

Alagoas | LimaGa2001
Bahia | SilvadGoGa1968
Parana | SilvadGoGa1968
Pernambuco | LimaGa2001
Rio Grande do Sul | CostaL1936
Rio de Janeiro | CostaL1936
Sao Paulo | SilvadGoGa1968

Cameroon | Watson2002a

Canary Islands | CarnerPe1986 MatileOr2001

Cape Verde | Watson2002a

Chile | GonzalCh1968

Atacama | Watson2002a
Coquimbo | Watson2002a
O'Higgins | Watson2002a
Santiago | Watson2002a

China | Tang1977

Beijing (=Peking) | Hua2000
Fujian (=Fukien) | Hua2000
Guangdong (=Kwangtung) | Tao1999
Guangxi (=Kwangsi) | Hua2000
Henan (=Honan) | Hua2000
Hunan | Hua2000
Jiangsu (=Kiangsu) | Tao1999 Watson2002a
Jiangxi (=Kiangsi) | Hua2000
Nei Monggol (=Inner Mongolia) | Tao1999
Shanxi (=Shansi) | Hua2000
Xizang (=Tibet) | Tao1999
Yunnan | Tao1999
Zhejiang (=Chekiang) | Hua2000

Corsica | FoldiGe2018

Croatia | Schmid1973

Cuba | MerrilCh1923

Curaçao | Reyne1964

Cyprus | UlgentHo2019

Denmark | KozarzRe1975

Egypt | AbdRab2001a Newste1911

France | DanzigPe1998

Georgia (Republic of) | BatsanKaKi2017 Hadzib1941

Germany | Bouche1833

Gibraltar | Giliom1966

Greece | ArgyriStMo1976 StathaKaDa2021

Guinea | Watson2002a

Guyana (=British Guiana) | Newste1893d Watson2002a

Haiti | Watson2002a

Hawaiian Islands | MillerDa2005

Kauai | Nakaha1981a
Maui | Nakaha1981a
Niihau | Nakaha1981a
Oahu | Nakaha1981a

Hungary | KozarKoFe2013 Ordogh1976

India | Maskel1896a

Karnataka | VarshnMo1987
Kerala | Sankar1984
Maharashtra | VarshnMo1987
Odisha (=Orissa) | VarshnMo1987
Tamil Nadu | Ramakr1919

Iran | Bodenh1944b Moghad2013a

Iraq | DanzigPe1998

Israel | Bytins1966

Italy | Leonar1920 LongoMaPe1995

Sicily | Costan1950 LongoMaPe1995

Jamaica | Cocker1893j

Japan | Tao1999

Kenya | WatsonOuKa2021

Lithuania | Vengel1965

Luxembourg | Gertso2016

Madagascar | Watson2002a

Madeira Islands | Giliom1966

Malta | Borg1932 MifsudMaRu2014

Mauritius | MerrilCh1923 WilliaWi1988

Mexico | MerrilCh1923 MillerDa2005

Baja California Norte | PadillMaNa2016
Chiapas | PadillMaNa2016
Durango | PadillMaNa2016
Jalisco | Essig1910a
Morelos | PadillMaNa2016 VanegaLoRo2018
Nayarit | PadillMaNa2016
Nuevo Leon | PadillMaNa2016
Puebla | PadillMaNa2016
San Luis Potosi | PadillMaNa2016
Sonora | PadillMaNa2016
Tamaulipas | CoronaRuTr1998
Veracruz | PadillMaNa2016
Yucatan | PadillMaNa2016

Morocco | ElAalaSb2023a Giliom1966

Mozambique | Almeid1971

Netherlands | JansenAl2023

Netherlands Antilles | KondoWa2022b

New Caledonia | MilleHeCa2016

Pakistan | AhmadGh1972

Papua New Guinea | WilliaWa1988

Peru | Watson2002a

Poland | LagowsGo2020

Portugal | Watson2002a

Puerto Rico & Vieques Island

Puerto Rico | Maxwel1902

Reunion | GermaiMiPa2014 Mamet1957 WilliaWi1988

Romania | FetykoKoDa2010 Teodor2018

Russia | Borchs1937

Saint Croix | Nakaha1983

Saint Helena | Giliom1966

Sardinia | LongoMaPe1995 Paoli1915 PellizFo1996

South Africa | Brain1919

South Korea | DanzigPe1998

Spain | GomezM1937

Taiwan | Tao1999

Trinidad and Tobago | Watson2002a

Tunisia | Mamet1943a

Turkey | Bodenh1949 KaymakYa2017

Turkmenistan | DanzigPe1998

U.S. Virgin Islands | Nakaha1983

United Kingdom

England | Newste1901b

United States

Alabama | MillerDa2005
Arizona | Howard1895a MillerDa2005
California | MerrilCh1923 MillerDa2005
Connecticut | Britto1923
District of Columbia | MillerDa2005
Florida | MerrilCh1923 MillerDa2005
Georgia | Howell1975a
Indiana | Amos1933
Iowa | Cocker1894g
Kansas | Lawson1917 MillerDa2005
Kentucky | MillerDa2005
Louisiana | Merril1953 MillerDa2005
Maryland | MillerDa2005
Massachusetts | MerrilCh1923
Michigan | MillerDa2005
Mississippi | MillerDa2005
Missouri | MillerDa2005
New Jersey | MillerDa2005
New Mexico | MillerDa2005 Newste1901b
New York | Comsto1883 MillerDa2005
North Carolina | MillerDa2005
Ohio | MillerDa2005 Sander1904a
Oklahoma | MillerDa2005
Oregon | MillerDa2005
Pennsylvania | MillerDa2005
Tennessee | LambdiWa1980
Texas | Herric1911 MillerDa2005
Virginia | Merril1953 MillerDa2005
Wyoming | MillerDa2005

Uruguay | Giliom1966

Venezuela

Venezuelan Antilles | Watson2002a

Vietnam | Suh2016

Keys

MoghadWa2021: pp.105 ( Adult (F) ) [Diaspis in Iran]
Moghad2021: pp.376 ( Adult (F) ) [Diaspis in Iran]
SuhJi2009: pp.1041-1043 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of armored scales intercepted on imported plants (slide mounted females) ]
MillerDa2005: pp.29-30 ( Adult (F) ) [Field Key to Economic Armored Scales]
ColonFMe1998: pp.90 ( ) [Key to species of Diaspis of Puerto Rico]
Gill1997: pp.124 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to California species of Diaspis]
WilliaWa1988: pp.100 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of Diaspis in the tropical South Pacific Region]
Chou1982: pp.118 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to Chinese species of Diaspis]
Danzig1971d: pp.844 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of family Diaspididae]
Schmut1959: pp.178 ( Adult (F) ) [Bestimmungstabelle der deutschen Diaspis-Arten]
Ezzat1958: pp.245 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to Diaspis species of Egypt]
McKenz1956: pp.31 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to the species of Diaspis Costa]
Balach1954e: pp.177 ( Adult (F) ) [Tableau d'indentification des espèces du Diaspis Costa]
Hall1946a: pp.515 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of Diaspis]
Ferris1942: pp.SIV-446:51 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of Diaspis]
Archan1937: pp.83 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of Diaspis]
Fullaw1932: pp.95 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of Hawaiian Diaspinae]
MacGil1921: pp.320 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of Diaspis] Key as: Diaspis calyptroides
Newste1901b: pp.152 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of Diaspis]

Remarks

Systematics: There is much uncertainty about the validity of Diaspis echinocacti Bouché, 1833 as a valid name. In 1791 Lancry described Coccus luteus as a small white diaspidid on cactus. This name was unused until 1943c when Lindinger cited it as the senior synonym of both D. echinocacti and D. calyptroides (Costa, 1829). Aspidiotus calyptroides(=D. calyptroides) was first considered as a synonym of D. echinocacti by Targioni Tozzetti (1868) who cited D. calyptroides as the senior name, but Fernald (1903b) considered D. calyptroides as the junior synonym and variable usages of those names both as the junior and senior synonym were cited from then on. The initial use of D. echinocacti as the senior name could be explained by confusion over the date of the Costa publication. It was considered by some to be published in 1835, not in 1829. This issue was resolved by D'Erasmo (1949) and Option 1247 of the ICZN. Though Borchsenius (1966) considered D. luteus to be incertae sedis, more recent authors have considered the three names, echinocacti, luteus and calyptroides synonymous (Morrison & Morrison, 1966 and Danzig, 1993). Morrison & Morrison (1966) acknowledge Lindinger's work, but stated that "for more than 60 years the majority of coccid workers have cited echinocacti Bouché, 1833, as the type species of Diaspis Costa." Many authors considered D. echinocacti the senior name including Bodenheimer (1924), Ferris (1937), Balachowsky (1954e), Gill (1997) Gómez-Menor Ortega (1937, 1965, 1967) and Mamet (1949). Based on Morrison & Morrison (1966), Danzig (1993) cited D. calyptroides and D. luteus as nomina oblita and retained D. echinocacti as the senior name. According to the most recent rules, a nomen oblitum is described as a "senior synonym or homonym [which] has not been used as a valid name after 1899, and the junior synonym or homonym has been used for a particular taxon as its presumed valid name, in at least 25 works, published by at least 10 authors in the immediately preceding 50 years and encompassing a span of not less than 10 years." In this instance, it seems clear that since D. calyptroides was used as a senior name over the years by several authors (MacGillivray 1921, Balachowsky 1927, Lupo 1938, Bodenheimer 1949, Silva d'Araujo et al. 1968) and D. luteus was cited as the senior name by Lindinger (1943c, 1949, 1957 and 1958) that neither name meets the criteria of a nomen oblitum. Because D. echinocacti is so widely used and because D. calyptroides and D. luteus have only rarely been treated as the senior name, a petition should be written to the Commission to decide the issue. Until that time, we will continue general usage of D. echinocacti realizing full well that D. luteus has seniority. Diaspis echinocacti differs from all the other species in the Pacific area in possessing a prominent pair of median lobes which are rounded and, although they may diverge, they do not form a deep notch at the apex of pygidium. The dorsal ducts are numerous on segments 5 and 6, where they are particularly conspicuous in compact submedian groups (Williams & Watson, 1988).
Structure: Female scale approximately circular, rather thin, grayish white to greenish white, distinct median carina or ridge; exuviae terminal (Merrill & Chapin, 1923). Slide mounted adult female differs from most species of Diaspis in possessing a prominent pair of median lobes that are rounded and, although they may diverge, they do not form a deep notch at the apex of the pygidium. Dorsal ducts are numerous on segments V and VI, where they form conspicuous compact submedian groups (Williams & Watson 1988). Male cover linear and parallel-sided. Adult male is linear, oblong and elongate, while exuviae located in the anterior is yellow. The sides of the male cover are almost parallel and covered with white wax. Anterior of the male scale bears a brown exuviae while posteriorly the distance between the sides is enlarged. (Imane, et al., 2022)
Biology: Description of life history by Oetting (1984). Lima & Gama (2001) report the dissemination of the neonate scale transported on the body surface of the predators Chilocorus nigrita and Zagreus bimaculosus. The only definitive study on the life history of this species is by Oetting (1984). He found "that development from the egg to adult required from 23 to 26 days under constant 27 C or greenhouse conditions with males requiring 1 to 2 days longer than females. Adult females had a preoviposition period of 12 to 23 days followed by 1 to 2 months of oviposition." An individual female laid about 100 to 200 eggs. The species is reported to have 2 generations each year in greenhouses in Moscow, USSR (Saakyan Baranova 1954). It frequently is found on the pads and fruit of its cactus host; it is occasionally reported on the subterranean crown and roots. (Miller & Davidson, 2005).
Economic Importance: Miller & Davidson (1990) list this insect as a serious and widespread pest. Williams & Watson (1988) state that this insect is found wherever species of Cactaceae are grown. Discussion of economic importance also by Russo & Siscaro (1994). Damage appears to be variable. Many publications state that the cactus scale has little or no effect on its host, while others record it as an important pest. This variation probably reflects the presence or absence of natural enemies and/or the susceptibility of the various host plants. According to Russo and Siscaro (1994) this species recently has become a problem on prickly pear (Opuntia ficus-indica) on some farms in Sicily, requiring specific measures of chemical control. Feeding resulted in the presence of chlorotic areas on the fruit. The encyrtid Plagiomerus diaspidis was the most effective natural enemy in the study area, giving rates of parasitism greater than 40%. This species is considered to be an important world pest by Miller and Davidson (1990). (Miller & Davidson, 2005).
General Remarks: Detailed description and illustration by Ferris (1937).

Illustrations

Citations

AbdRab1999: biological control, distribution, 1119
AbdRab2001a: biological control, distribution, host, 175, 176
AbdRabEv2021: distribution, host, 34
AbouEl2001: biological control, distribution, host, 187
AhmadGh1972: biological control, distribution, host, 85
AlbuquSiMe2023: control,
AlbuquSiRa2023: biology, control, illustration,
Ali1970: catalog, distribution, host, taxonomy, 15, 16
Almeid1971: distribution, host, 10
Amos1933: distribution, host, 207
Amos1933a: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 211
AmouroCrGe2017: phylogenetics, phylogeny, 3
AndersWuGr2010: phylogeny, taxonomy, 997-1003
Archan1937: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 83, 85-86
ArgyriStMo1976: biological control, distribution, host, 26
Arnett1985: economic importance, 241
Arruda1983: taxonomy, 274
Arruda2002: biological control, chemical control, description, life history, i
Autran1907: distribution, host, 152
Baker1976: host, life history, 3
Balach1954e: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 177, 189-192, 194
BatsanKaKi2017: distribution, host, 258
BazaroSh1971: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 138-140
Beatty1944: distribution, host, 127
BelgueBiBe2017: biological control, natural enemies, 122, 127, 128
BeltraDaCa2022: host,
BenDov2012: catalog, distribution, host, 30, 44
BenDov2013: distribution, illustration, 72
Benass1961: structure, 332
BesheaTiHo1973: distribution, host, 10
Bibby1961: distribution, host, 330
BicheArMe2022: distribution, host, 505
Blicke1965: taxonomy, 290, 307
Bodenh1924: distribution, host, 38
Bodenh1944b: distribution, host, 95
Bodenh1949: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 87, 91-93
Bodenh1953: distribution, host, taxonomy, 4-5
Bodenh1953a: taxonomy, 164
Boisdu1868: distribution, host, 281
Borchs1937: distribution, host, taxonomy, 104, 105, 117
Borchs1950b: distribution, host, taxonomy, 207
Borchs1966: catalog, distribution, host, taxonomy, 170, 171, 372
Borchs1973: distribution, host, taxonomy, 277
Borg1932: distribution, host, 12
Bouche1833: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 53
Bouche1834: distribution, host, taxonomy, 15
Brain1919: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 223-224
Brain1929: distribution, host, 142
Britto1923: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 366, 368
Brown1965: structure, 278
Burmei1835: distribution, taxonomy, 68
Butche1959: distribution, host, 363
Bytins1966: distribution, economic importance, host, 18, 27, 28
CaliskUl2017: distribution, host, taxonomy, 341
CarnerPe1986: distribution, host, taxonomy, 37
Charli1972: distribution, host, 215
Charmo1899: taxonomy, 29
Chou1982: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 118, 121-122
Chou1986: illustration, 521
Cocker1893j: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 256
Cocker1894e: distribution, host, 462
Cocker1894g: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 127-128
Cocker1895p: distribution, host, 244
Cocker1896a: description, distribution, host, 258
Cocker1902d: host, taxonomy, 58
Cocker1902t: distribution, host, 471
Cocker1905b: taxonomy, 201
CockerPa1899: distribution, host, 277
ColonFMe1998: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 93
Comsto1883: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 91-93
Comsto1916: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 552-555, 556
Costa1829: description, distribution, host, 20-21
CostaL1936: distribution, host, taxonomy, 191
Costan1950: distribution, host, taxonomy, 9
Danzig1964: distribution, taxonomy, 650
Danzig1971d: taxonomy, 844
DanzigPe1998: catalog, distribution, host, taxonomy, 245-246
Davis1896: distribution, host, 37
DeBach1964d: biological control, distribution, host, 12, 13, 14
DeSant1979: biological control, 233, 312, 314, 316
Dekle1965c: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 11, 57
DowellGiJe2016: distribution, 115
ESKSAE1994: distribution, list, 114
ElAalaRaBe2024: biological control, entomopathogenic fungi, natural enemies,
ElAalaRaKa2024: biological control, entomopathogenic fungi, 11
ElAalaRaSb2024: control, ecology, host,
ElAalaSb2023a: biological control, natural enemies,
ElAalaSb2023b: biological control, ecology, natural enemies,
ElirazRo1978: biological control, distribution, host, 96
Essig1910a: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 214-215
Ezzat1958: distribution, taxonomy, 245
Fernal1903b: distribution, host, taxonomy, 229, 230
Ferris1936a: illustration, taxonomy, 21, 47
Ferris1937: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, SI-36
Ferris1941e: taxonomy, 43
Ferris1942: taxonomy, SIV-446: 51
FetykoKoDa2010: distribution, 296
FogaraKo1977: 388, 389
FogaraKo1977: distribution, host, 392
Foldi2001: distribution, economic importance, 306, 308
FoldiGe2018: distribution, 9
FrancoRuMa2011: distribution, 11,23
Fullaw1932: taxonomy, 95, 102
Fulmek1943: biological control, catalog, 31
Germai2008: distribution, 77-87
GermaiMiPa2014: distribution, 23
Gertso2016: distribution, host, 152
GertssSc2020: distribution, host, 134
GhabboMo1996: description, distribution, host, 345
Ghauri1962: physiology, taxonomy, 5
Giliom1966: catalog, distribution, host, 423
Gill1982c: distribution, host, illustration, 1
Gill1997: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 124, 127-128, 132, 2
GomezM1937: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 186-189
GomezM1965: distribution, host, 107
GomezM1967G: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 107-108
GomezM1967O: distribution, host, 132
GomezM1968: distribution, host, 547
Gonzal2016: diagnosis, distribution, illustration, 121-122
GonzalCh1968: distribution, 110
Goot1912: distribution, host, 287
GordhLa1976: biological control, 132
Gowdey1921: distribution, host, 25
GrandpCh1899: distribution, host, 7, 9
GruwelWoKo2016: phylogeny, 173-176
Hadzib1941: distribution, host, 188
Hadzib1983: distribution, host, 193, 275
Hall1922: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 34-35
Hall1923: distribution, host, 47, 58
Hall1925: distribution, host, 25
Hall1926a: taxonomy, 38
Hall1946a: distribution, host, taxonomy, 515, 546, 549
Haywar1944: distribution, host, 7
Hellri2004: distribution, host, 87
Hempel1900a: distribution, host, taxonomy, 520
Herric1911: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 37-38
HertinSi1972: biological control, taxonomy, 180
HodgesHo2002a: taxonomy, 118
Howard1895a: distribution, host, 360
Howell1975a: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 409-411
HowellTi1977: description, 128
HuHeWa1992: distribution, illustration, 193
Hua2000: distribution, host, 150-151
HuangPo1998: biological control, 1859
JansenAl2023: dispersal, host, 25,33
JiSu2012: distribution, host, illustration, 1-5
Kawai1980: distribution, host, 261
KaymakYa2017: distribution, host, taxonomy, 45
Kirkal1906a: taxonomy, 254
Komosi1974: taxonomy, 345
KondoWa2022a: distribution, host, list, 16
KondoWa2022g: control, diagnosis, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 471-472
KozarKoFe2013: distribution, taxonomy, 54
KozarWa1985: catalog, distribution, 83
KozarzRe1975: distribution, host, 32
Kuwana1926: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 18-19, 45
LagowsGo2020: distribution, 69
LagowsGoHo2022: distribution, host, list, 9
LambdiWa1980: distribution, host, 80
Lancry1791: description, distribution, host, 484
Lashin1956: distribution, host, taxonomy, 133
Lawson1917: distribution, host, 243, 244
Leonar1920: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 183, 196-199
Lesche2000: biological control, 919
Lima2002: biological control, 157
LimaGa2001: distribution, host, 479-480
Lindin1911a: host, 30
Lindin1912b: description, distribution, taxonomy, 234-235
Lindin1931: taxonomy, 124
Lindin1935: taxonomy, 133
Lindin1943c: taxonomy, 249
Lindin1949: taxonomy, 212
Lobdel1937: taxonomy, 78
LongoMaPe1995: distribution, 126
LongoMaPe1999a: distribution, 149
Lupo1938: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 122, 123-129
MacGil1921: distribution, host, taxonomy, 320
Mamet1943a: distribution, host, 159
Mamet1949: catalog, distribution, host, taxonomy, 35
Mamet1957: distribution, 369
Martin1983: distribution, host, 52
MartinLa2011: catalog, distribution, 40
Maskel1896a: distribution, host, 225
Maskel1897: distribution, host, taxonomy, 298-299
Matile1976: distribution, host, 308
MatileOr2001: distribution, 190
Maxwel1902: distribution, host, 249
Maxwel1903: description, distribution, host, 44
MazzeoSuRu2008: distribution, host, 149-152
McCabeJo1980: taxonomy, 7
McDani1971: distribution, host, illustration, 296, 299
MedinaKo2012: host, 44
Merril1953: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 45, 46
MerrilCh1923: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 231-232
MilleHeCa2016: distribution, economic importance, host, 139
Miller2005: distribution, 487
MillerDa1990: economic importance, taxonomy, 302
MillerDa2005: description, distribution, economic importance, host, 186
MiskimBo1970: distribution, host, 30
Moghad2013a: distribution, host, 28-29
Moghad2021: key, 376
MoghadWa2021: diagnosis, distribution, economic importance, host, illustration, taxonomy, 105, 107-108
MorseNo2006: phylogeny, taxonomy, 340
MoutiaMa1947: distribution, host, 9
MurakaAbCo1984: biological control, 242
MyartsRu2000: biological control, distribution, 10, 12, 25
Myers1925: biological control, 165
Nakaha1981a: distribution, host, 397
Nakaha1982: distribution, host, 31
Nakaha1983: distribution, host, 10
NakahaMi1981: distribution, 33
Newste1893d: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 188
Newste1893f: taxonomy, 281
Newste1901b: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 152, 159-162
Newste1907a: distribution, host, 15
Newste1911: distribution, host, 87
NikolsYa1966: biological control, 261
Nishid2002: catalog, 141
NiuLiXu2024: DNA sequencing, S1 Table
NormarOkMo2019: distribution, host, phylogeny, taxonomy, 19, 65, S6
OberemLaGa2024: DNA, control,
Oettin1984: biological control, description, distribution, economic importance, host, life history, 88-92
Ordogh1976: distribution, host, 422
Ordogh1977: distribution, host, 2438
Osborn1898: distribution, host, 228
PadillMaNa2016: distribution, host, 556
PanisPi2001a: biological control, distribution, 423-427
Paoli1915: distribution, host, 256
Pelliz2011: distribution, 312
PellizChMi2015: distribution, 61,72
PellizFo1996: distribution, 121
PellizGe2010a: distribution, economic importance, host, 477,501
PerezG2008: distribution, 215
PerezGCa1985: distribution, 316
PicartMa2000: distribution, host, 16
PlugatChYa2021: DNA, control,
PooleGe1997: distribution, 348
Porcel2001: illustration, structure, 141-152
PriesnHo1940: biological control, distribution, host, 59, 66
Prinsl1979: biological control, distribution, host, 73
Ramakr1919: distribution, host, 622
Ramakr1919a: distribution, host, taxonomy, 12
Ramakr1926: taxonomy, 456
Ramakr1930: distribution, host, taxonomy, 13-14
Reali1954: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 27-49
Reyne1964: distribution, host, 97
RodrigNaVa2019: distribution, host, 468
Rosen1973: biological control, 52
RosenDe1978: biological control, 104
RosenDe1979: biological control, distribution, 758
RossHaOk2012: phylogeny, taxonomy, 199
RussoSi1994: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 73-76
Saakya1954: distribution, host, 28-29
Sander1904a: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 52
Sankar1984: biological control, distribution, host, 21-22
Schmid1973: distribution, host, 441
Schmut1959: distribution, host, 178, 179
Signor1869d: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 434-435
SilvadGoGa1968: biological control, catalog, distribution, host, 174
SoaresDe1999: distribution, ecology, host, 141-142
StathaKaDa2021: distribution, host, illustration, natural enemies, 49
Suh2016: distribution, host, key, 320, 326
SuhJi2009: distribution, illustration, taxonomy, 1039-1054
SzitaFeBe2017: distribution, host, 469
Tang1977: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 194
Tang2001: taxonomy, 3
Tao1999: distribution, host, 83
Targio1867: distribution, host, 13
Targio1868: taxonomy, 735
Teodor2018: distribution, history, 42
TerGri1954: distribution, host, 67
TerGri1969a: distribution, host, 6, 93, 96
TremblCa1972: physiology, 431
UlgentErYa2022: distribution, host, S119
UlgentHo2019: diagnosis, distribution, life history, 297
VanegaLoRo2018: natural enemies, 125-127
Varshn2002: distribution, host, 62
VarshnMo1987: distribution, host, 177
Vengel1965: distribution, taxonomy, 128
WaltmaRaWi2016: distribution, 231
Wang1980: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 162-164
Watson2001: list, 177
Watson2002: taxonomy, 117
Watson2002a: biological control, description, distribution, economic importance, host, illustration, life history, taxonomy,
Watson2021: distribution, 523
WatsonOuKa2021: distribution, host, 81
Westco1973: chemical control, distribution, host, 391
Willia2015: taxonomy, 579
Willia2017a: catalog, list of species, 222, 228
WilliaBe2009: catalog, 20,30
WilliaWa1988: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 104, 106-107
WilliaWi1988: distribution, host, 64
Wilson1917: distribution, host, 11
Zahrad1990c: distribution, host, 16
Zimmer1948: distribution, host, 412, 415