Valid Names Results
Dactylopius opuntiae (Cockerell, 1896) (Dactylopiidae: Dactylopius)Nomenclatural History
- Coccus cacti opuntiae Cockerell 1896f: 35. Type data: MEXICO: Guanajuato, on a species of Cactaceae.. Syntypes, female, Type depository: Washington: United States National Entomological Collection, U.S. National Museum of Natural History, District of Columbia, USA; accepted valid name Notes: Cockerell (1896f) credited this species to "Licht. MS", but the author should be named Cockerell. Illustr.
- Coccus tomentosus; Cockerell 1896f: 35. misidentification
- Coccus tomentosus newsteadi; Cockerell 1899a: 391. misidentification (discovered by Cocker1929, 328-329). Notes: Cockerell (1898) gave the name newsteadi to a supposed new form of cochineal insect which he then treated as a subspecies of tomentosus. At the time he wrote his check-list of the Coccidae, he questioned whether this was a synoniym of Coccus opuntiae. Present (1974) evidence shows that the material listed by Cockerell was referable partly to tomentosus and partly to confusus. (DeLotto, 1974)
- Dactylopius opuntiae (Cockerell, 1896); Cockerell 1929: 328. change of combination and rank Illustr.
- Dactylopius opuntiae; Mann 1969: 139,146. subsequent use Notes: Incorrect citation of "Lichtenstein" as author. Illustr.
- Dactylopius opuntaie (Cockerell, 1896); Bugaj-Nawrocka, et al. 2021: 298. misspelling of species epithet
Common Names
- opuntia cochineal scale Gill1993 Koszta1996
- alsa-cochonilha-carmim PachecSuCl2022
- False carmine cochineal PachecSuCl2022
- grana silvestre PachecSuCl2022
- prickly pear cochineal PachecSuCl2022
Ecological Associates
Hosts:
Families: 1 | Genera: 6
- Cactaceae
- Cylindropuntia fulgida | PachecSuCl2022
- Cylindropuntia tunicata | ChavezTeCa2011 | (= Opuntia undulata)
- Mammillaria elongata | PerezGKo1992 | (= Mammillaria tenuis
- Nopalea | PerezGKo1992
- Nopelea karwinskiana | ChavezTeCa2011
- Opuntia | AnneckBuCo1976 ChavezTeCa2011 DeLott1974a MacGreSa1984 PerezGKo1992 | (= Platyopuntia)
- Opuntia aciculata | PachecSuCl2022
- Opuntia atrispina | PachecSuCl2022
- Opuntia cochenillifera | ChavezTeCa2011 | (= Nopalea cochenillifera)
- Opuntia dejecta | PachecSuCl2022
- Opuntia elatior | PachecSuCl2022 | (= Opuntia nigricans)
- Opuntia engelmannii | ChavezTeCa2011 DeLott1974a | (= Opuntia tardospina) (= Opuntia cacanapa) (= Opuntia cantabrigiensis)
- Opuntia ficus-indica | ChavezTeCa2011 LeblalMeBa2025 SpodekBePr2014 MatileLeRi1999 | (= Opuntia maxima),,,
- Opuntia fuliginosa | ChavezTeCa2011
- Opuntia humifusa | Hall1922 PerezGKo1992 RuleHo2018 | (= Opuntia vulgaris)
- Opuntia hyptiacantha | ChavezTeCa2011
- Opuntia jaliscana | ChavezTeCa2011
- Opuntia karwinskiana | PachecSuCl2022
- Opuntia leucotricha | ChavezTeCa2011
- Opuntia lindheimeri | DeLott1974a
- Opuntia littoralis | PerezGKo1992 Rao1951
- Opuntia macrocentra | PachecSuCl2022
- Opuntia megacantha | ChavezTeCa2011 DeLott1974a Pettey1947 Pettey1950
- Opuntia microdasys | PachecSuCl2022
- Opuntia occidentalis | PerezGKo1992
- Opuntia phaeacantha | PachecSuCl2022
- Opuntia robusta | ChavezTeCa2011
- Opuntia streptacantha | DeLott1974a
- Opuntia stricta | DeLott1974a PerezGKo1992 UesatoKoUn2011 | (= Opuntia dillenii, Opuntia inermis)
- Opuntia tomentosa | ChavezTeCa2011 DeLott1974a MacGreSa1984 PuttarCh1957 | (= Opuntia hernandezi, Opuntia macdougaliana)
- Opuntia tortispina | PachecSuCl2022
- Opuntia tuna | PerezGKo1992
- Opuntia velutina | PachecSuCl2022 | (= Opuntia atropes)
- Tacinga palmadora | PerezGKo1992 PerezGKo1992 | (= Opuntia palmadora)
Foes:
Families: 27 | Genera: 49
- Amaranthaceae
- Atriplex halimus | FakhouRaBo2025 | plant extract
- Bacillaceae
- Bacillus halotolerans | ElMinaEzAm2024 | 'BME8'
- Bacillus licheniformis | ElMinaEzAm2024 | ‘Bm4D’
- Bacillus subtilis | ElMinaEzAm2024 | ‘Bm1A’
- Priestia aryabhattai | ElMinaEzAm2024 | 'Bm3C'
- Botryosphaeriaceae
- Macrophomina tecta | ElAalaRaSb2024a
- Brevibacillaceae
- Brevibacillus | RemmalElBe2025
- Chamaemyiidae
- Leucopis bellula | CruzRoGoGo2016 SpodekBePr2014 | (= Leucopis bellula)
- Clavicipitaceae
- Metarhizium anisopliae | MazzeoNuRu2019
- Coccinellidae
- Chilocorus bipustulatus | AalaouBoSb2019
- Chilocorus cacti | CruzRoGoGo2016 VanegaReRo2015
- Chilocorus politus | AalaouBoSb2019
- Coccidophilus citricola | MazzeoNuRu2019
- Cryptolaemus montrouzieri | MoussaYaAz2017 ElAalaSb2023
- Exochomus | Bartle1978c LimaDaFa2011
- Exochomus flavipes | MazzeoNuRu2019
- Exochomus flaviventris | MazzeoNuRu2019
- Exochomus nigripennis | AalaouBoSb2019
- Hippodamia convergens | AalaouBoSb2019
- Hyperaspis | KellyMoHa2022
- Hyperaspis campestris | BouharAaBo2019
- Hyperaspis trifurcata | CruzRoGoGo2016 ProtasMeSp2017 VanegaReRo2015 ElAalaYaRa2025
- Nephus redtenbacheri | AalaouBoSb2019
- Prodilis hattie | GiorgiBaOl2018
- Scymnobius guttulatus | AalaouBoSb2019
- Scymnus interruptus | AalaouBoSb2019
- Scymnus latemaculatus | AalaouBoSb2019
- Scymnus loewii | AalaouBoSb2019
- Scymnus suturalis | AssadChBu2024
- Tenuisvalvae notata | SantosCaPe2017
- Zagreus bimaculosus | MazzeoNuRu2019
- Cordycipitaceae
- Akanthomyces lecanii | ElAalaYaRa2025
- Beauveria bassiana | MazzeoNuRu2019 FakhouRaBo2025
- Cordyceps farinosa | ElAalaYaRa2025
- Lecanicillium lecanii | ElAalaRaSb2024a | (=Verticillium lecanii)
- Cybocephalidae
- Cybocephalus | MazzeoNuRu2019
- Encyrtidae
- Formicencyrtus thoreauini | KellyMoHa2022
- Entomophthorales
- Neozygites lecanii | MazzeoNuRu2019 | (= Empusa lecani)
- Euphorbiaceae
- Ricinus communis | ElAalaRaSb2024a
- Fabaceae
- Enterolobium contortisiliquum | ElAalaRaSb2024a
- Hemerobiidae
- Sympherobius angustus | VanegaLoRo2010
- Sympherobius barberi | CruzRoGoGo2016 SpodekBePr2014
- Heterorhabditidae
- Heterorhabditis bacteriophora | ElAalaMoDa2022
- Lamiaceae
- Lavandula angustifolia | EzahidAmAl2025 | essential oil
- Mentha pulegium | FakhouRaBo2025 | essential oil
- Origanum vulgare | FakhouRaBo2025 | essential oil
- Thymus vulgaris | EzahidAmAl2025 | essential oil
- Melyridae
- Cyrtosus cyanipennis | AalaouBoBo2021
- Nectriaceae
- Fusarium caatingaense | SilvaSCoLi2019
- Fusarium incarnatum | SilvaSSoCo2016
- Fusarium incarnatum–equiseti | CarneiTiMe2017
- Fusarium pernambucanum | SilvaSCoLi2019
- Orsodacnidae
- Orsodacne atra | AalaouBoBo2021
- Phytoseiidae
- Amblyseius swirskii | ElAalaRaBe2025a
- Pleosporaceae
- Alternaria | OuguasChBo2022
- Alternaria destruens | ElAalaRaSb2024a
- Alternaria murispora | ElAalaRaSb2024a
- Stemphylium | OuguasChBo2022
- Ulocladium | OuguasChBo2022
- Pseudomonadaceae
- Pseudomonas koreensis | ElMinaEzAm2024 FakhouRaBo2025
- Pyralidae
- Laetilia coccidivora | CruzRoGoGo2016 SpodekBePr2014 WilliaMi2010
- Solanaceae
- Capsicum annuum | FakhouRaBo2025 | plant extract
- Nicotiana tabacum | ElAalaRaSb2024a
- Steinernematidae
- Steinernema feltiae | ElAalaMoDa2022
- Streptomycetaceae
- Streptomyces bellus | ElAalaYaRa2025 ElAalaRaBe2025a | 'E23-2',E23-2
- Streptomyces galilaeus | ElAalaYaRa2025 | 'E23-9'
- Syrphidae
- Eosalpingogaster cochenillivora | CruzRoGoGo2016 VanegaLoRo2010
- Salpingogaster | LimaDaFa2011
Associates:
Families: 16 | Genera: 18
- Alcaligenaceae
- Achromobacter denitrificans | RemmalElBe2025
- Brucellaceae
- Brucella anthropi | RemmalElBe2025
- Chitinophagaceae
- Flavisolibacter longurius | RemmalElBe2025
- Cryptococcaceae
- Cryptococcus | GonzalHeBu2024
- Enterobacteriaceae
- Enterobacter cloacae | RemmalElBe2025
- Formicidae
- Linepithema humile | AcunaSGrMu2023
- Monomorium minimum | AcunaSGrMu2023
- Moraxellaceae
- Acinetobacter junii | RemmalElBe2025
- Paenibacillaceae
- Paenibacillus castaneae | RemmalElBe2025
- Phyllobacteriaceae
- Phyllobacterium myrsinacearum | RemmalElBe2025
- Polyporaceae
- Trametes | GonzalHeBu2024
- Pseudomonadaceae
- Pseudomonas mosselii | RemmalElBe2025
- Pseudomonas putida | RemmalElBe2025
- Rhodocyclaceae
- Candidatus Dactylopiibacterium | RemmalElBe2025
- Uliginosibacterium | RemmalElBe2025
- Rivulariaceae
- Macrochaete psychrophila | RemmalElBe2025
- Sphingomonadaceae
- Sphingomonas | RemmalElBe2025
- Xanthomonadaceae
- Stenotrophomonas maltophilia | RemmalElBe2025
- Zoogloeaceae
- Aromatoleum | RemmalElBe2025
Geographic Distribution
Countries: 32
- Algeria | BouhisGhSa2022
- Australia
- New South Wales | CouturMaRi1985 DeLott1974a PerezGKo1992
- Brazil
- Pernambuco | Ehrhor1906 Essig1909 Essig1909a Kuwana1901 Miller1996 PerezGKo1992
- Cape Verde | MayneGh1934 VanHarCoWi1990
- Chile | PachecSuCl2022
- Cyprus | UlgentHo2019
- Egypt | PachecSuCl2022
- France | Foldi2001 McKenz1967 Miller1996 WilliaGr1992
- Hawaiian Islands
- Hawaii | Miller1996 Morsta1936
- India | BenDov1994 DeLott1974a Miller1996 Tang1992 TangHaTa1992
- Odisha (=Orissa) | BenDov1994 Kawai1973 PerezGKo1992
- Tamil Nadu | BenDov1994 Ezzat1960 EzzatNa1987 PerezGKo1992
- Israel | SpodekBePr2014 Willia2004a
- Jamaica | Cocker1897 Miller1996 PerezGKo1992
- Jordan | KatbehBAb2019
- Kenya | DeLott1974a Miller1996 PerezGKo1992 Richar1971
- Lebanon | MoussaYaAz2017
- Madagascar | Miller1996 Richar1971
- Mauritius | LuteteTaKa1997 Miller1996 PerezGKo1992
- Mexico
- Aguascalientes | Abebe1987 MacGreSa1984
- Baja California Norte | MacGreSa1984 Miller1996 PerezGKo1992 WilliaMa1994
- Chiapas | CaballRa2018 MacGreSa1984 McKenz1967
- Chiapas | PachecSuCl2022
- Chihuahua | BenDov1994 ChavezTeCa2011 Ehrhor1900 Fernal1903b Ferris1950b McKenz1967 Miller1971a
- Ciudad de México | BenDov1994 HendriKo1999 MacGreSa1984 Miller1996 Willia1985
- Durango | BenDov1994 HendriKo1999 MacGreSa1984 Miller1996 PerezGKo1992 Willia1985
- Guanajuato | BenDov1994 Cocker1896f Cox1987
- Guerrero | BenDov1994 Cox1987 MacGreSa1984
- Hidalgo | AvasthSh1987 BenDov1994 MacGreSa1984 Miller1996 PerezGKo1992 Varshn1992
- Jalisco | MacGreSa1984 Willia2004a
- Mexico State | KozarFoZa1996 MacGreSa1984 Miller1996
- Michoacan | BenDov1994 MacGreSa1984 Miller1996 PerezGKo1992 Willia1970DJ Willia2004a
- Morelos | BenDov1994 Danzig1972c KozarFoZa1996 Miller1996
- Nayarit | BenDov1994 Borchs1948c MacGreSa1984
- Nuevo Leon | Danzig1998a MacGreSa1984 MyartsKaPo1995
- Oaxaca | MacGreSa1984 Miller1996 PerezGKo1992 Willia2004a
- Puebla | BenDov1994 Cox1987 MacGreSa1984
- Queretaro | BenDov1994 DeLott1971c MacGreSa1984
- Tamaulipas | BenDov1994 Miller1996 PerezGKo1992 Takaha1941a Willia2004a
- Veracruz | BenDov1994 Kawai1973 Kawai1987 MacGreSa1984
- Zacatecas | BenDov1994 Kawai1973 Kawai1987 MacGreSa1984
- Morocco | BouharAmQe2016 MoussaYaAz2017
- New Caledonia | MilleHeCa2016 WilliaWa1990
- Pakistan | BenDov1994 Cocker1899l Fernal1903b Ferris1953a Miller1996 PerezGKo1992
- Palestine | AdwanAbOm2024
- Reunion | BaniDiNz2003 GermaiMiPa2014 Miller1996 PerezGKo1992
- Saudi Arabia | BouhisGhSa2022
- South Africa | AnneckBuCo1976 DeLott1974 Miller1996 PerezGKo1992 Pettey1947 WilliaMaMi2010
- Spain | BenDovSa2015 MazzeoNuRu2019
- Sri Lanka | Balach1930a Balach1932d DeLott1974a Foldi2001 Miller1996 PerezGKo1992
- Syria | AssadChBu2024
- Tunisia | AbbesHaWa2023
- United Kingdom | Fernal1903 MazzeoNuRu2019
- United States
- Arizona | BenDov1994 Miller1996 PerezGKo1992 Tang1992 TangHaTa1992
- California | BenDov1994 Gill1993 Miller1996 PerezGKo1992 Takaha1958
- Texas | Kawai1987 Miller1996 PerezGKo1992
- Zimbabwe | PerezGKo1992 WilliaMaMi2010
Keys
- DeHaroCl1995: pp.16-17 ( Adult (F) ) [world]
- Gill1993: pp.148 ( Adult (F) ) [USA, California]
- PerezGKo1992: pp.35-36 ( Adult (F) ) [Species of Dactylopius]
- DeLott1974a: pp.173-174 ( Adult (F) ) [world]
Remarks
- Systematics: Examination of the morphological characteristics of the insects of the species D. opuntiae by Chavez, et al (2011) resulted in two separate groups, designated D. opuntiae and D. opuntiae biotype 1, described as follows. Insects with a typical morphology of this species (De Lotto 1974, Pérez-Guerra & Kosztarab 1992) were designated D. opuntiae. Insects with morphological characteristics of D. opuntiae combined with characteristics corresponding to D. salmianus were designated as Dactylopius opuntiae biotype 2. D. salmianus has a thinner and elongated body and the structures of the setae and pores are more elongated and more separated or dispersed over the insect body. (Chavez, et al, 2011) There are a number of different biotypes within the species D. opuntiae, with each biotype being adapted to feed on a particular cactus species (Volchansky et al. 1999). In South Africa six cochineal species or biotypes have been released for the control of 11 cactus species, all resulting in substantial or complete control with no recorded or known non-target impacts
- Structure: The adult female is oval in shape and measures 2.1-2.3 mm long and 1.4-1.7 mm wide; however the female is sub-globular on slide and measures between 2.0-3.1 mm long and 1.8-2.7 mm wide. The ultrastructure of wax-secreting glands described and SEM photographed by Hartley et al. (1983). Colour photograph given by Gill (1993).
- Biology: Gill (1993) indicated that it prefers the Platyopuntia group of flat-pad cacti in the genus Opuntia. The development of D. opuntiae is similar to that of other species of the genus, with two nymphal instars before adult females, and two nymphal instars, prepupa, and pupa before adult males. (Pérez Guerra & Kosztarab, 1992)
- Economic Importance: Pettey (1947), Pettey (1950), Pettey & Marais (1950) and Zimmermann & Moran (1991) presented detailed accounts on the role of this species in the successful biological control of prickly pears, especially Opuntia megacantha, in South Africa. Goeden (1978) discussed the use of this species in biological control of Opuntia spp. Dactylopius opuntiae ‘stricta’, which has been utilised for the successful control of Opuntia stricta Haw., has shown some promise as an agent against one of the worst cactus weeds in the country, the North Cape/Free State variety of Opuntia engelmannii Salm-Dyck. (Paterson, et al., 2021)
Dactylopius opuntiae has reduced the productivity of prickly pear, an important cattle food in the semiarid region of Brazil. Specific strains of the Fusarium incarnatum–equiseti species complex were found to be efficient in controlling this insect under both laboratory and field conditions. DNA fingerprints generated by the primer UBC834 confirmed that specific fungal strains caused the mortality of D. opuntiae. These molecular markers can be used to monitor fungal isolates in the field. The novel isolates from the Fusarium incarnatum–equiseti species complex can be used as an environmentally friendly alternative to control D. opuntiae. Mentha pulegium and Origanum vulgare oils provided a rich source of bioactive compounds and exhibited high contact toxicity against D. opuntiae in laboratory studies. In addition, M. pulegium and O. vulgaris oils applied in combination with black soap induced the highest toxic activity on adult females under field conditions. (Ramdani, et al., 2022)
- General Remarks: Description and illustration of adult female by De Lotto (1974a), Perez Guerra & Kosztarab (1992) and by Gill (1993). Portillo (1995) distinguished between the fine cochineal species Dactylopius coccus and a group of wild cochineal species comprising D. austrinus, D. ceylonicus, D. confertus, D. confusus, D. opuntiae, D. salmianus, D. tomentosus and D. zimmermani.
Illustrations
Citations
- AalaouBoBo2021: natural enemies,
- AalaouBoSb2019: biological control, economic importance, natural enemies,
- AalaouBoSb2019a: biological control, natural enemies,
- AbushaAs2025: control, diagnosis, distribution, economic importance, illustration, life cycle, taxonomy,
- AcunaSGrMu2023: ant association, 26
- AdwanAbOm2024: DNA, molecular biology, phylogenetics,
- AkroudSbBo2021: host,
- AlencaGoSi2019: chemistry, entomopathogenic fungi, natural enemies,
- AlhousBaEl2024: biology, host, nymph, reproduction,
- Andres1981: biological control, distribution, economic importance, host, 341-349
- AndresGo1971: biological control, 143-164
- AnneckBuCo1976: biological control, distribution, economic importance, host, 111-116
- AragonGoGa2024: biology,
- AragonMaGo2023: chemistry,
- ArroudFaZa2024: heat-treatment, mechanical control,
- AsaadChBu2025: biology, illustration, life history,
- AssadChBu2024: distribution, illustration, natural enemies,
- BalciuBuPu1995: biological control, distribution, 445
- BarretRoLo2020: natural enemies,
- BenDov2006b: catalog, taxonomy, 221-222
- BenDovSa2015: distribution, 313
- BencheElSb2025: biology, chemistry, control, host, illustration, importance, 10-12
- Bennet1971: biological control, distribution, host, 371
- BerkaHaEs2023: diagnosis,
- BouchrSoSa2025: bacteria, biological control, distribution, host,
- BouharAaBo2019: biological control, natural enemies,
- BouharAmQe2016: diagnosis, distribution, host, illustration, 308-310
- BouharChQe2025: biological control, chemical control, host, natural enemies,
- BouharSbBo2018: biological control, chemical control, natural enemies, 300-306
- BouhisGhSa2022: distribution, economic importance, host, illustration,
- BugajNJuKa2021: distribution, host, list, 298
- CaballRa2018: distribution, 2
- CardenDeCu2021: chemistry,
- CarneiTiMe2017: biological control, entomopathogenic fungi, 925–933
- ChavezTeCa2011: distribution, host, 68
- ChavezTeFr2010: chemistry, 671-679
- Cocker1896f: distribution, taxonomy, 35
- Cocker1929: taxonomy, 329
- Coyle1990: biological control, distribution, host, 490-492
- CruzRoGoGo2016: biological control, natural enemies, 642–648
- DeHaroCl1995: taxonomy, 16-17
- DeLott1974: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 184-186
- DeSouzHo2015: biological control,
- DowellGiJe2016: distribution, 114
- ElAalaBoBo2020: natural enemies,
- ElAalaBoSb2019: chemical control,
- ElAalaMoDa2022: natural enemies,
- ElAalaMoSb2025: control, heat-treatment, 2, 9
- ElAalaRaBe2025: biological control, entomopathogenic fungi, 6
- ElAalaRaBe2025a: biological control, distribution, entomopathogenic fungi, host, natural enemies,
- ElAalaRaKa2024: entomopathogenic fungi, 3
- ElAalaRaKa2025: biological control, 3
- ElAalaRaKa2025b: biological control, chemical ecology, entomopathogenic fungi, host,
- ElAalaRaSb2024: biological control, entomopathogenic fungi, illustration,
- ElAalaRaYa2025: entomopathogenic fungi, 2
- ElAalaSb2022: ecology, reproduction,
- ElAalaSb2023: control, natural enemies,
- ElAalaSb2023c: biological control, natural enemies,
- ElAalaSb2025: biological control, ecology, natural enemies,
- ElAalaSb2025a: biological control, ecology, natural enemies,
- ElAalaSb2026: biological control, ecology, natural enemies,
- ElAalaYaRa2025: control, entomopathogenic fungi, natural enemies, resistance,
- ElMinaEzAm2024: bacteria, behavior, control, illustration, life cycle, wax,
- EzahidAmAl2025: chemical ecology, control, illustration,
- FakhouRaBo2025: biological control, chemical, entomopathogenic fungi, host, nymph,
- FloresMuRu2006: distribution, host, life history, 97-102
- Foldi2001: distribution, 303-308
- FoldiGe2018: distribution, 9
- FoxcroHo2000: biological control, distribution, economic importance, host, life history, 1-5
- GencAy2023: economic importance, illustration,
- GermaiMiPa2014: distribution, 22
- Gill1993: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 149, 151
- GiorgiBaOl2018: natural enemies,
- GithurZiHo1999: biological control, distribution, economic importance, host, life history, taxonomy, 43-48
- Goeden1978: biological control, distribution, economic importance, host, 362-378
- GoedenAnFr1974: biological control, distribution, host, 490-495
- GonzalHeBu2024: endosymbiont, 2
- HarbiAbRa2024: biological control, ecology, natural enemies,
- HartleWaMo1983: structure, 97-98
- Heap1990: biological control,
- HernanBrMa2019: control,
- HernanCr2018: biological control, natural enemies, 334–339
- HernanOrRo2023: chemical control,
- HoffmaImVo2002: biological control, distribution, economic importance, host, 900-908
- HoffmaMoZi2020: biological control, ecology,
- HosehBaAl2025: biological control, chemical control, chemical ecology,
- HuffakCa1986: biological control, economic importance, 95-107
- HuffakDaJa1984: biological control, distribution, 659-691
- ImaneHaMo2022: biology, diagnosis, economic importance, illustration, natural enemies,
- KatbehBAb2019: biological control, chemical control, distribution, host, illustration, natural enemies,
- KellyMoHa2022: natural enemies,
- KlugeZiCi1986: biological control, 295-303
- KondoGu2022: economic importance, 1,3
- KondoWa2022a: distribution, host, list, 13
- Koszta1987: biological control, economic importance, 218
- LaghzaAgSo2022: control, distribution,
- LagowsGoHo2022: distribution, host, list, 9
- LaingHa1976: biological control, 685
- LazaroGoVa2022: distribution, host, natural enemies, 168
- LeblalMeBa2025: biological importance, distribution, host, illustration, record,
- LeonDoBu2021: DNA, endosymbionts,
- LimaDaFa2011: biological control, 51-54
- LopesOlCo2018: biological control, 255-267
- MacGreSa1984: distribution, host, taxonomy, 220-221
- Mann1969: distribution, economic importance, host, life history, 139-150
- MartinRoAr2023: bacteria, natural enemies,
- MatosGuFi2021: chemistry, host,
- MazzeoNuRu2019: biological control, biology, chemical control, diagnosis, distribution, economic importance, host, mechanical control, natural enemies,
- MboNkoEl2025: control, distribution, economic importance, host, 2
- MendelPrGo2024: biological control, dispersal, ecology, natural enemies,
- MendelPrVa2020: biological control, natural enemies,
- MilleHeCa2016: distribution, economic importance, host, 135
- Miller1996: catalog, distribution, 71
- MofokePaKl2025: behavior, biology, host, reproduction, taxonomy,
- MoranVaBi2025: ecology, 16
- MoranZi1984: biological control, distribution, host, 297-320
- MoussaYaAz2017: distribution, economic importance, host, natural enemies, 173-178
- MuniapSuSe2026: biological control, distribution, ecology, history, host, natural enemies, 3, 10, 12
- MusengMbBy2021: biological control,
- NanDeWu2013: phylogenetics, 173
- Ordish1967: biological control, economic importance,
- OuguasChBo2022: biological control, entomopathogenic fungi,
- PachecSuCl2022: biology, control, diagnosis, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 391-394
- PalaciNiLl2004: chemical control, 99-106
- PalaciRoFr2018: biological control, natural enemies,
- PalafoRoLo2018: biology, life cycle,
- PatersKlMu2021: biological control,
- PerezGKo1992: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 59-62
- Pettey1943: biological control, distribution, host, 743-746
- Pettey1946a: biological control, distribution, host, 31-33
- Pettey1947: behavior, biological control, distribution, ecology, economic importance, host, life history,
- Pettey1950: biological control, distribution, ecology, host, life history, 1-12
- PetteyMa1950: chemical control, distribution, economic importance, host, 13-34
- Portil1995: distribution, host, 62-65
- ProtasMeSp2017: biological control, natural enemies, 1-4
- PulzWoCa2008: taxonomy, 72
- RamdanBoSb2020: control,
- RamdanElTi2025: host, mechanical control, nymph,
- RemmalElBe2025: Wolbachia, bacteria, biological control, endosymbiont, molecular biology,
- RodrigGaGo2024: chemistry, host,
- RuleHo2018: biological control, host, 7-11
- SalasMRLo2020: natural enemies,
- SalhiElEl2024: control, host, illustration,
- SantosCaPe2017: natural enemies,
- SantosNeSa2018: economic importance, host,
- Schowa2025: control, diagnosis, distribution, ecology, economic importance, history, illustration, life history, natural enemies, taxonomy,
- SchutzGoGu2026: biological control, distribution, 5
- SerranOlGo2018: ecology, importance,
- SerranSoHa2013: chemistry, economic importance, 6081-6090
- SextonMuMc2025: behavior, biological control, host, 1074, 1083
- SilvaMeDe2013: molecular data, 5236-5246
- SilvaSCoLi2019: entomopathogenic fungi,
- SilvaSSoCo2016: biological control, economic importance, entomopathogenic fungi, 539-547
- SilvaSaLi2025: distribution, ecology, host,
- Skaife1979: distribution, host, life history, 1-3
- SkaifeLeBa1981: distribution, taxonomy, 1-5
- SpodekBePr2014: distribution, host, 377-379
- Stavi2022: control, ecology, 834
- Sweetm1935: biological control, 373-377
- TorresGi2018: biological control, biology, chemical control, distribution, ecology, economic importance, host, mechanical control, morphology, 331–340
- UlgentHo2019: description, distribution, host, life history, 296-297
- Valles1965: biological control, 259-279
- VanHarCoWi1990: distribution, host, 321
- VanStePaEd2021: DNA, biological control,
- VanegaLoRo2010: biological control, natural enemies, 415-433
- VanegaLoRo2018: natural enemies, 125-127
- VanegaPeLo2017: biological control, natural enemies, 23-31
- VanegaReRo2015: biological control, natural enemies, 194-199
- VanegaRoLo2016: biological control, natural enemies, 691-701
- VenterCoBy2022: biological control,
- VolchaHoZi1999: biological control, distribution, economic importance, host, life history, taxonomy, 85-91
- VonEll2025: distribution, 22
- Watson2021: distribution, 522
- Weber1951: biological control, distribution, host, 327
- WilliaBe2009: catalog, taxonomy, 12, 35
- WilliaBe2015: taxonomy, 166
- Wilson1964: biological control, 238
- WittNuMa2020: biological control,
- YousefQu2020: control,
- Zimmer1989a: biological control, 1-2
- ZimmerMo1982: biological control, distribution, host, 314-320
- ZimmerMo1991: biological control, distribution, economic importance, host, 29-35
- ZimmerMoHo1986: biological control, 269-275
- daSilvDuDa2010: distribution, ecology, host, life history, physiology, 718-722
- duToit1942: biological control, distribution, economic importance, host, 300-304
