Valid Names Results

Chionaspis pinifoliae (Fitch, 1856) (Diaspididae: Chionaspis)

Nomenclatural History

Aspidiotus Pinifoliae Fitch 1856: 488-491. Type data: UNITED STATES: Illinois, Cook Co., Springfield, on Pinus sp., 9/?/1855, by R. W. Kennicott. Syntypes, female, Type depository: Albany: New York State Museum Insect Collection, New York, USA; accepted valid name
Mytilaspis pinifoliae (Fitch, 1856); LeBaron 1872: 83. change of combination
Chionaspis pinifoliae (Fitch, 1856); Comstock 1881a: 318. change of combination
Chionaspis pinifoliae semiaurea Cockerell 1895u: 730-731. Type data: UNITED STATES: Colorado, on Pinus sp.. Syntypes, female, junior synonym (discovered by Balach1954e, 354). Notes: We have been unable to locate material of Chionaspis pinifoliae semiaurea either in the USNM or the BMNH.
Leucaspis pinifoliae (Fitch, 1856); García Mercet 1912: 215. change of combination
Chionaspis pinifolia (Fitch, 1856); Ruhl 1913: 80. misspelling of species epithet
Chionaspis (Phenacaspis) pinifoliae (Fitch, 1856); Balachowsky 1930d: 266. change of combination
Trichomytilus pinifolii (Fitch, 1856); Lindinger 1933a: 166. misspelling of species epithet
Polyaspis pinifolii (Fitch, 1856); Lindinger 1935: 140. change of combination
Phenacaspis pinifoliae (Fitch, 1856); Ferris 1937: SI-93. change of combination
Chionaspis pinifoliae (Fitch, 1856); Takagi 1985: 48. revived combination (previously published)

Common Names

cochenille des aiguilles du pin MawFoHa2000
guagua de las hojas del pino AlayoS1976
pine leaf scale Britto1922 Hollin1923
pine needle scale Gorham1922 Koszta1963
white pine needle scale Gill1997
white pine scale Brown1916
pine-tree scale Newste1907a
pine-leaf scale-insect Lintne1889
pine-leaf scale Herric1929
guagua de las hojas del pino Watson2022a

Ecological Associates

Hosts:

Families: 3 | Genera: 11

Cupressaceae

Cupressus | Watson2002a
Juniperus | MillerDa2005
Juniperus virginiana | LambdiWa1980

Pinaceae

Abies | MillerDa2005
Abies alba | Ballou1926 Cooley1899 | (= Pinus heterophylla)
Abies balsamea | KosztaRh1999
Abies concolor | Jorgen1934
Abies fraseri | KosztaRh1999
Abies grandis | King1901f
Cedrus | Borchs1966 MillerDa2005
Larix laricina | Cooley1899
Picea | Koszta1963 MillerDa2005
Picea abies | Cooley1899 Koszta1963 | (= Abies excelsa) (= Pinus excelsa)
Picea engelmannii | Cooley1899 Jorgen1934 | (= Abies nigra)
Picea glauca | King1901f
Picea orientalis | Koszta1963
Picea pungens | Amos1933 Koszta1963
Picea rubens | LambdiWa1980
Pinus | Cooley1899 Koszta1963 MillerDa2005
Pinus attenuata | NormarOkMo2019
Pinus caribaea | AlayoS1976
Pinus cembra | Cooley1899
Pinus contorta | NormarOkMo2019
Pinus densiflora | Britto1922
Pinus echinata | Cooley1899 | (= Pinus mitis)
Pinus flexilis | HorninBa1970
Pinus halepensis | Newste1907a
Pinus leiophylla | NormarOkMo2019
Pinus monophylla | NormarOkMo2019
Pinus mugo | Britto1905 Cooley1899 | (= Pinus mughus) (= Pinus pumilio)
Pinus nigra | Cooley1899 Koszta1963 Lintne1889 | including ssp. salzmannii (= Pinus pyrenaica) (= Pinus austriaca)
Pinus palustris | Newste1907a | (= Pinus longifolia)
Pinus ponderosa | Cocker1910b | var. scopulorum
Pinus radiata | Brown1916
Pinus resinosa | Cooley1899 Gorham1922
Pinus rigida | Koszta1963
Pinus strobus | Cooley1899 Gorham1922 Lintne1889
Pinus sylvestris | Cooley1899
Pinus tropicalis | AlayoS1976
Pinus virginiana | BesheaTiHo1973
Pinus wallichiana | Cooley1899
Pseudotsuga | MillerDa2005
Pseudotsuga menziesii | Cooley1899 Jorgen1934 | (= Pseudotsuga mucronata) (= Pseudotsuga taxifolia)
Tsuga | MillerDa2005
Tsuga canadensis | BesheaTiHo1973

Taxaceae

Taxus | Borchs1966 MillerDa2005
Torreya | Borchs1966 MillerDa2005

Foes:

Families: 12 | Genera: 22

Anthocoridae

Melanocoris nigricornis | HertinSi1972

Aphelinidae

Ablerus atomon | Watson2002a
Ablerus pinifoliae | Fulmek1943 | (= Azotus pinifoliae)
Aphytis | Koszta1963
Aphytis chilensis | Garcia1930 NikolsYa1966 | (= Aphytis longiclavae)
Aphytis diaspidis | Fulmek1943 MartelSh1968
Aphytis mytilaspidis | Britto1922 Cooley1899 MartelSh1968 Ruhl1913 Watson2002a | (= Aphelinus mytilaspidis)
Aphytis proclia | NikolsYa1966
Coccobius | DeSant1940 | (= Physcus)
Coccobius howardi | RobertLuDa1973 Watson2002a | (= Physcus howardi)
Coccobius varicornis | CooperCr1999 HertinSi1972 Watson2002a | (= Physcus varicornis)
Coccophagus flavifrons | CooperCr1999
Encarsia | CooperCr1999
Encarsia aurantii | Morley1909 | (= Prospalta aurantii)
Encarsia bella | RobertLuDa1973 | (=Prospaltella bella)
Encarsia citrina | NikolsYa1966 HuangPo1998 | (= Aspidiophagus citrinus),
Encarsia leucaspidis | Fulmek1943 | (= Prospaltella leucaspidis)
Marietta mexicana | Garcia1912 MartelSh1968 | (= Perissopterus mexicanus)
Marietta pulchella | Britto1922 Cooley1899 Fulmek1943 | (= Perissopterus pulchellus)

Ceratozetidae

Trichoribates | Koszta1963

Chamaemyiidae

Leucopis minor | Fulmek1943 | (= Leucopis nigricornis)

Chrysopidae

Chrysopa | Britto1922 Cooley1899

Coccinellidae

Chilocorus bivulnerus | Britto1922 Cooley1899 Lintne1889
Chilocorus orbus | RobertLuDa1973
Chilocorus stigma | HertinSi1972
Coccidophilus atronitens | CooperCr1999 RobertLuDa1973
Coccidophilus marginata | Gorham1922 MartelSh1970 | (= Microweisea marginata)
Harmonia | Britto1914 Britto1922
Mulsantina picta | Cooley1899 | (= Coccinella picta)
Scymnus | Britto1922 Cooley1899

Cybocephalidae

Cybocephalus nigritulus | Britto1922 Cooley1899

Encyrtidae

Aphycus primus | Fulmek1943 Fulmek1943
Metaphycus nadius | Fulmek1943 | (= Euaphycus pinicola)

Eulophidae

Chrysonotomyia phenacapsia | RobertLuDa1973 Watson2002a | (= Closterocerus phenacapsia) (= Achrysocharis phenacapsia)

Hemisarcoptidae

Hemisarcoptes | CooperCr1999

Oribatulidae

Zygoribatula pyrostigmata | Koszta1963

Signiphoridae

Chartocerus conjugalis | Fulmek1943 | (= Signiphora conjugalis)

Associates:

Families: 1 | Genera: 1

Coccinellidae

Chilocorus renipustulatus | Lambdi1995 | (= Chilocorus kuwanae)

Geographic Distribution

Countries: 11

Canada | MillerDa2005

Alberta | MawFoHa2000
British Columbia | King1901f Prover1956
New Brunswick | Gorham1922
Nova Scotia | Watson2002a
Ontario | Cooley1899
Prince Edward Island | Watson2002a
Quebec | GuayBeDo2018 MartelSh1968
Saskatchewan | MawFoHa2000

Chile | Watson2002a

Cuba | AlayoS1976 Ballou1923 MestreHaEv2011 | MillerDa2005

Easter Island | Watson2022a

El Salvador | Watson2002a

Germany | MillerDa2005 SchmutHo2016

Honduras | Watson2002a

Libya | DanzigPe1998

Mexico | MacGre1974 MillerDa2005

United Kingdom | DanzigPe1998 | MillerDa2005

United States

Alabama | Willia1977aML
Arizona | MillerDa2005
California | Cooley1899 LuckDa1975 MillerDa2005
Colorado | Cocker1895u MillerDa2005
Connecticut | Britto1905 MillerDa2005
District of Columbia | Cooley1899 MillerDa2005
Florida | Cooley1899 MillerDa2005
Georgia | BesheaTiHo1973 MillerDa2005
Idaho | HorninBa1970 MillerDa2005
Illinois | Cooley1899 MillerDa2005
Indiana | Dean1909 MillerDa2005
Iowa | Cooley1899 MillerDa2005
Kansas | Hunter1900
Kentucky | MillerDa2005
Louisiana | Miller2005
Maine | Cooley1899 MillerDa2005
Maryland | Koszta1963 MillerDa2005
Massachusetts | Cooley1899 MillerDa2005
Michigan | Cooley1899 MillerDa2005
Minnesota | MillerDa2005
Missouri | Hollin1923
Montana | MillerDa2005
Nebraska | MillerDa2005
Nevada | Herric1929
New Hampshire | MillerDa2005
New Jersey | Cooley1899 MillerDa2005
New Mexico | Cooley1899 MillerDa2005
New York | Cooley1899 Lintne1889 MillerDa2005
North Carolina | MillerDa2005
North Dakota | Herric1929 MillerDa2005
Ohio | Koszta1963 MillerDa2005
Oregon | MillerDa2005 SchuhMo1948
Pennsylvania | MillerDa2005 Sleesm1945
South Dakota | MillerDa2005
Tennessee | BesheaTiHo1973 MillerDa2005
Texas | McDani1972a MillerDa2005
Utah | Jorgen1934 MillerDa2005
Vermont | MillerDa2005
Virginia | French1942 MillerDa2005
Washington | Cooley1899 MillerDa2005
West Virginia | MillerDa2005
Wisconsin | MillerDa2005 SeveriSe1909
Wyoming | MillerDa2005

Keys

VeaGwNo2012: pp.53-54 ( Adult (F) ) [Pine-feeding Chionaspis of North America]
MillerDa2005: pp.29 ( Adult (F) ) [Field Key to Economic Armored Scales]
MillerDa2005: pp.20-21 ( Adult (F) ) [Armored Scales]
Gill1997: pp.75 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to California species of Chionaspis]
Koszta1996: pp.439 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of Chionaspis]
BullinKoJi1989: pp.134 ( Adult (M) ) [Key to 17 adult male morphs of 12 species of North American Chionaspis]
LiuKoRh1989: pp.15 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to the species of Chionaspis in North America]
McDani1972a: pp.337 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to the Texas species of the genus Phenacaspis Cooley and Cockerell] Key as: Phenacaspis pinifoliae
Koszta1963: pp.91 ( ) [Key to Ohio species of Phenacaspis] Key as: Phenacaspis pinifoliae
McKenz1956: pp.34 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of Phenacaspis] Key as: Phenacaspis pinifoliae
Balach1930d: pp.266 ( Adult (F) ) [Tableau de détermination des Chionaspis Sign. (sensu lato) vivant aux dépens des Conifères]
Britto1923: pp.362 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of Chionaspis]
Hollin1923: pp.20 ( Adult (F) ) [Species of Chionaspis known to occur in Missouri]
MacGil1921: pp.326 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of Chionaspis] Key as: Chionaspis pinifoliae
Lawson1917: pp.260 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of Chionaspis in Kansas]
Comsto1916: pp.559 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of Chionaspis] Key as: Chionaspis pinifolii
DietzMo1916a: pp.264 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to Chionaspis species of Indiana]
Sander1904a: pp.43 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to Chionaspis species of Ohio]
Cooley1899: pp.10 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of Chionaspis]
Comsto1881a: pp.98 ( ) [Key to species of Chionaspis] Key as: Chionaspis pinifolii

Remarks

Systematics: GenBank accession number MH032862 (Normark, et al., 2019), KF887377 and KF887402 (Campbell, et al., 2014) The armored scale insects Chionaspis pinifoliae (Fitch) and Chionaspis heterophyllae Cooley overlap broadly in host range and geographic distribution and are so similar in morphology that they can be distinguished only by a subtle morphological character of the adult females: the form of the median pygidial lobes. However, this character is quite variable for both species. The consistent absence of heterozygotes at the three allozyme loci and the large mitochondrial sequence difference conÞrms that the morphology of the pygidial lobes is a reliable and convenient character for identifying C. pinifoliae and C. heterophyllae and supports the hypothesis that they are not only separate, but very old species. (Philpott, et al., 2009) Cockerell (1895u) described the subspecies Chionaspis pinifoliae semiaureus based on specimens whose exuviae was bright orange instead of the usual yellow.
Structure: Female scale elongate oval, almost parallel sided on spruce, usually broader on pine needles, convex, snow white, 2.5-3.0 mm long. First exuviae almost colorless, second exuviae orange-yellow. Male scale elongate oval, slightly broadened posteriorly, tricarinate, white, 1.0 mm long, 0.4 mm wide, exuviae pale yellow (Kosztarab, 1963).
Biology: Chionaspis pinifoliae overwinters as eggs. There are two generations per year in Ohio (Kosztarab, 1963). In Canada, the western U.S., and the northern most eastern U.S. 1 generation per year is reported. From the southern U.S., Rhode Island, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and parts of New York there are 2 generations each year. This species usually overwinters in the egg stage, but Luck and Dahlsten (1974) discovered that gravid adult females overwintered on Jeffrey pine at South Lake Tahoe, California, while those on lodgepole pine in the same area overwintered in the normal manner as eggs. The lodgepole population is parthenogenetic, while the Jeffrey pine population has about a 50:50 mix of males and females. A generalized life history for the Jeffrey population is as follows: Egg laying began in late May, although a relatively small number of eggs were laid on warm days in the winter. Crawlers appeared in mid-June and persisted until August, 2nd instars were present from late July through September, adult males were present in September, and adult females appeared in early September. Stimmann (1969) found that adult females laid eggs throughout the winter in Oregon on lodgepole pine. Burden and Hart (1989) developed a degree-day model for egg eclosion of this species. Eliason and McCullough (1997) demonstrated different survival rates and fecundity on four varieties of Scotch pine suggesting the possibility of host plant resistance. Stimmel (2002, personal communication) indicated that this species overwinters as both eggs and gravid females in Pennsylvania. Shour (1986) examined feeding preferences based on needle surface (convex vs. concave) and needle age and also examined differencees in settling site preferences between males and females. There were slight differences compared with Chionaspis heterophyllae, pine scale. (Miller & Davidson, 2005). R. Gwiazdowski and B.B. Normark reports up to ~10% divergence in mitrochondrial DNA between populations across the United States despite close morphological similarity.
Economic Importance: Common pest of conifers, especially in urban environments, also in Christmas tree plantations. It is considered one of the most serious pests of ornamental pines, especially mugho and Scotch pines in the USA (Johnson & Lyon, 1991). Miller & Davidson (1990) also list this insect as a serious pest. The pine needle scale can build to large populations which cause the needles of infested trees to appear gray from a distance. In heavy infestations needles turn yellow and eventually drop. The lower branches usually die first and entire trees may be killed. Cumming (1953) considered this species to be a serious pest of spruce and pine in ornamental plantings in the Prairie Provinces of Canada. Miller and Davidson (1990) consider it to be a serious pest in a small area of the world. (Miller & Davidson, 2005). In Québec, C. pinifoliae has the status of an emerging pest of Christmas trees and is not known to cause any significant damage. Although not generally monitored by growers, it can be an obstacle for exportation. (Doherty, et al., 2018) Morphological and biological similarities between C. pinifoliae and C. heterophyllae have led to taxonomic confusion. The timing of crawler emergence is critical for managing armored scale insects because the crawler stage is the most vulnerable to pesticides. Pest managers can more accurately predict when crawlers will emerge if they have correctly identiÞed the scale species. Agreement between the allozyme and DNA sequence results and the morphology was complete, with no exceptions. These findings confirm that entomologists can make slide mounts of the pygidia of scale insect specimens and assign them to C. pinifoliae or C. heterophyllae with a high probability of accuracy. (Philpott, et al., 2009)
General Remarks: Detailed description and illustration by Cooley (1899). Detailed treatment of male morphs by Bullington et al. (1989). This species was recorded by Newstead (1907a) and Hall (1923) in Egypt, but this record was based on a misidentification of Leucaspis pusilla.

Illustrations

Citations

AAEE1931: taxonomy, 1286
AhmedMi2019b: biology, diagnosis, distribution, host, illustration,
AlayoS1976: distribution, host, taxonomy, 18-19
AlvareLiLu2020: phylogeny, 5
Amos1933: distribution, host, 207
AndersWuGr2010: phylogeny, taxonomy, 997-1003
Arnett1985: economic importance, 241
Baker1972: distribution, host, 109
Balach1930d: distribution, host, taxonomy, 266
Balach1954e: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 351, 354-356
Ballou1923: distribution, 86
Ballou1926: catalog, distribution, host, 15
BeardsGo1975: economic importance, 49
BesheaTiHo1973: distribution, host, 10
Bonafo1981: 168
BoratyWi1964: 88
Borchs1966: catalog, distribution, host, taxonomy, 124-125
Boyd1946: chemical control, distribution, economic importance, host, taxonomy, 99-100
Britto1905: distribution, host, illustration, 11
Britto1914: biological control, distribution, 14
Britto1922: biological control, chemical control, distribution, economic importance, host, life history, 181-183
Britto1923: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 362, 365
Britto1926: chemical control, distribution, life history, 228, 237
Brown1916: biological control, distribution, ecology, host, illustration, 415-418
Brown1958CE: distribution, ecology, host, 685-690
Brown1959CE: distribution, host, illustration, life history, 529-535
Brown1960: chemistry, 163, 165
Brown1965: chemistry, taxonomy, 182-194
BruesGl1921: ecology, 300
BrunerScOt1945: catalog, distribution, host, 139
BullinKoJi1989: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 174-177
CampbeLaHu2014: DNA, genebank, phylogeny, 531, 532, 533
Carnes1907: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 196
Cocker1895u: distribution, taxonomy, 730-731
Cocker1905b: distribution, host, taxonomy, 202
Cocker1910b: distribution, host, 427
Comper1936: biological control, distribution, 315
Comsto1881a: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 318-319
Comsto1883: biological control, distribution, host, taxonomy, 98, 105
Comsto1916: biological control, description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 467-468, 559, 566
Cooley1899: description, distribution, host, illustration, life history, taxonomy, 10, 30-34
CooperCr1999: biological control, distribution, 131-133
Cummin1953: description, distribution, host, life history, taxonomy, 347-352
DanzigPe1998: catalog, distribution, host, taxonomy, 209
DeBachRo1976: biological control, distribution, 177
DeSant1940: biological control, 35
Dean1909: distribution, host, 270
Dekle1965c: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 13, 111
DietzMo1916a: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 264, 268
DohertGuCl2018: ecology, physiology, 715-724
Dougla1912: distribution, host, 190
DrakeGu1931: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 12-13
Edmund1973: taxonomy, 766
EliasoMc1997: distribution, economic importance, host, 1598-1608
Englis1976: distribution, host, 54-56
Fernal1903b: distribution, host, taxonomy, 221
Ferris1937: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, SI-93
Ferris1941e: taxonomy, 47
Ferris1942: taxonomy, SIV-446:60
Ferris1956: distribution, host, 71-72, 74
Fitch1856: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 488-490
Fleury1938: distribution, host, 24, 41
French1942: distribution, 9
Fulmek1943: biological control, catalog, 24, 54
Garcia1912: biological control, 122
Garcia1930: chemical control, 53
Garcia1931a: biological control, 668
Ghesqu1933: taxonomy, 345
Gill1982c: distribution, host, illustration, 1
Gill1997: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 80-81
Giraul1909: life history, 356
GlynnHe2004: ecology, 748-755
Gorham1922: biological control, distribution, ecology, economic importance, host, life history, 37-41
Green1930: distribution, host, illustration, 17
GruwelWoKo2016: phylogeny, 173-176
GuayBeDo2018: biological control, biology, distribution, host, illustration, natural enemies,
GwiazdNo2008: physiology, 36
GwiazdNo2014: biological control, life history, 356-363
GwiazdVeAn2011: description, distribution, molecular data, phylogenetics, 47-62
Hagen1974: biological control, host, 34-35
Hall1923: distribution, host, 53-54
Hartma1916: distribution, host, 102
Heriot1931: taxonomy, 11
Herric1929: chemical control, distribution, economic importance, host, life history, 198-201
HertinSi1972: biological control, 188
HilburWe1984: distribution, host, life history, 1
Hollin1923: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 20, 26-27, 69
HorninBa1970: distribution, host, 22
HuangPo1998: biological control, 1860
Hunter1900: distribution, host, 104
Johnso1982: distribution, host, life history, 117-119
JohnsoLy1976: distribution, host, 82, 90
Jorgen1934: distribution, host, 277
Kelleh1984: distribution, host, 64-65
King1899d: distribution, host, 252
King1900c: distribution, host, 117
King1901f: distribution, host, 200
King1901j: distribution, host, 333
KondoWa2022a: distribution, host, list, 14
Koszta1963: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 95-96
Koszta1977a: distribution, host, 185
Koszta1996: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 464-466
KosztaRh1999: distribution, host, 122
KozarWa1985: catalog, distribution, 86
Kuznet1967: taxonomy, 238
Lambdi1995: biological control, 327-330
LambdiWa1980: distribution, host, 80
Lawson1917: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 260, 265-266
Lindin1932c: taxonomy, 203
Lindin1933a: taxonomy, 166
Lindin1935: taxonomy, 140
Lindin1943a: taxonomy, 146
Lindin1958: taxonomy, 371
Lintne1889: biological control, description, economic importance, host, illustration, 266-267
Lintne1895: distribution, host, taxonomy, 271
LiuKoRh1989: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 78-84
Luck1973: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 893
LuckDa1974: description, distribution, host, life history, taxonomy, 309
LuckDa1975: distribution, host, life history, taxonomy, 893-904
MacGil1921: distribution, host, taxonomy, 326
MacGre1974: distribution, 82
Mani1976: biological control, 63
Martel1972: chemical control, distribution, host, 20-23
MartelSh1968: biological control, distribution, host, illustration, life history, 19-25
MartelSh1970: biological control, description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 61-65
MartelSh1975: biological control, distribution, economic importance, host, 11-14
MawFoHa2000: distribution, taxonomy, 44
McCabeJo1980: taxonomy, 8
McClur1982: distribution, host, 156
McClurFe1977: distribution, host, 807-811
McCombDa1969: distribution, 3
McDani1972a: distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 338
McKenz1956: description, distribution, host, taxonomy, 34, 149
Merril1953: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 71
MerrilCh1923: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 215
MestreHaEv2011: distribution, host, 11
Miller1999: taxonomy, 14
Miller2005: distribution, 485
MillerDa1990: economic importance, taxonomy, 301
MillerDa2005: description, distribution, economic importance, host, 116
MillerKo1979: distribution, taxonomy, 21
Morley1909: biological control, 276
MorseNo2006: phylogeny, taxonomy, 340
MullenScNo2016: DNA sequencing, genetics, phylogeny, 208
MyartsRuCo2016: distribution, host, natural enemies, 82-89
Nakaha1975: taxonomy, 202
Nakaha1982: distribution, host, 20
Neiswa1966: distribution, host, 10
Newste1906: distribution, host, 69
Newste1907a: chemical control, description, distribution, host, 9
NielseJo1973: distribution, host, life history, taxonomy, 1161-1164
NikolsYa1966: biological control, 194, 199, 204, 261
Nishid2002: catalog, 142
NormarOkMo2019: distribution, host, phylogeny, 15, S6
Osborn1898: distribution, host, 228
Panis1969: distribution, host, 384
Pedgle1982: taxonomy, 90
Pettit1928: distribution, host, 191
PhilpoBeMi2009: phylogeny, taxonomy, 381-385
PooleGe1997: distribution, 347
Prover1956: chemical control, distribution, host, 653-655
QuesadSa2017: chemical control, 618-624
QuesadSa2019: biological control, chemical control, natural enemies,
QuesadSa2020: chemical control, natural enemies,
QuesadWiSa2018: chemical control, 267-275
RauppHoSa2001: chemical control, host, 204
RobertLuDa1973: biological control, distribution, host, illustration, 10-12
RosenDe1977: taxonomy, 11
RosenDe1979: biological control, distribution, 763
Ruhl1913: biological control, 80
Ruhl1913c: taxonomy, 80
Sander1904a: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 43, 49
Sander1910: taxonomy, 60
Savos1979: chemical control, 3
SchildSc1928: taxonomy, 237
SchmutHo2016: distribution, host, 57
Schude1975: chemical control, 1
SchuhMo1948: biology, chemical control, diagnosis, distribution, host, 49-50
SeveriSe1909: distribution, host, 297
ShenefBe1955: distribution, host, 36
Signor1877: catalog, taxonomy, 604
Simmon1957: catalog, 5
Simmon1957: catalog, distribution, host, 5
Sleesm1945: distribution, host, 46
Stimma1969: description, distribution, host, life history, taxonomy, 930-931
Stimme1996b: illustration, 38
Strong1922: distribution, host, 418
Sulliv1930: distribution, host, 56
SwanPa1972: distribution, host, 165
Takagi1985: distribution, host, taxonomy, 41
Tamaki1969: taxonomy, 89
Tippin1968: distribution, taxonomy, 13
TookerHa2000: biological control, distribution, economic importance, host, life history, taxonomy, 1305-1311
Treher1916: distribution, 180
TremblCa1972: structure, 431
Trimbl1928: distribution, host, 45
VeaGwNo2012: distribution, host, taxonomy, 38-39,53-54
Venabl1939: distribution, 24
Venabl1939: distribution, host, 24
Wallne1978: taxonomy, 97
WalstaNiJo1973: distribution, ecology, host, 109-112
WaltmaRaWi2016: distribution, 231
Watson2001: list, 177
Watson2002: taxonomy, 117
Watson2002a: biological control, description, distribution, economic importance, host, illustration, life history, taxonomy,
Watson2022a: biology, control, diagnosis, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 455-457
WebsteBu1902: distribution, host, 113
Weidha1968: taxonomy, 256
Westco1973: distribution, taxonomy, 415
Willia1977aML: distribution, host, 13
Willia2017a: catalog, list of species, 229
Wilson1917: distribution, host, 48
ZhaoZhWe2019: ecology, taxonomy,