Valid Names Results
Aulacaspis yasumatsui Takagi, 1977 (Diaspididae: Aulacaspis)Nomenclatural History
- Aulacaspis yasumatsui Takagi 1977a: 68-72. Type data: THAILAND: Bangkok, on Cycas sp., 1972 and 1973, by K. Yasumatsu. Holotype, female, Type depository: Sapporo: Entomological Institute, Faculty of Agriculture, Hokkaido University, Japan; accepted valid name Illustr.
- Aucalaspis yasumatsui; Meurgey 2011: 80. misspelling of genus name
Common Names
- cycad aulacaspis scale Halber1998a
- cycad scale Halber1996b
- sago palm scale HodgsoMa2001
- Asian cycad scale MalumpMa2012
- escama Asiática de las cicas WatsonKo2022a
Ecological Associates
Hosts:
Families: 3 | Genera: 9
- Cycadaceae
- Cycas | Takagi1977a
- Cycas circinalis | MalumpMa2012
- Cycas inermis | CaveNg2013
- Cycas media | HowardHaMc1999
- Cycas micronesica | BaileyChLa2010 DelosoTeYu2020
- Cycas panzhihuaensis | HowardHaMc1999
- Cycas revoluta | Heu2002 HowardHaMc1999 KozarKoFe2013
- Cycas rumphii | Heu2002 HowardHaMc1999
- Cycas seemannii | HowardHaMc1999
- Cycas szechuanensis | HowardHaMc1999
- Cycas taitungensis | BaileyChLa2010
- Cycas thouarsii | HowardHaMc1999
- Cycas wadei | HowardHaMc1999
- Stangeriaceae
- Bowenia | MalumpMa2012
- Bowenia serrulata | MarlerLiWa2021
- Stangeria | MillerDa2005
- Stangeria eriopus | HowardHaMc1999
- Zamiaceae
- Ceratozamia robusta | MarlerLiWa2021
- Dioon | MillerDa2005
- Dioon califanoi | HowardHaMc1999
- Dioon edule | HowardHaMc1999
- Dioon mejiae | MarlerLiWa2021
- Dioon merolae | HowardHaMc1999 NormarNoVo2017
- Dioon rzedowskii | HowardHaMc1999
- Dioon sonorense | HowardHaMc1999 MalumpMa2012 | (- Dioon tomasellii var. sonorense)
- Dioon spinulosum | HowardHaMc1999
- Encephalartos | MillerDa2005
- Encephalartos barteri | HowardHaMc1999
- Encephalartos ferox | HowardHaMc1999
- Encephalartos hildebrandtii | HowardHaMc1999
- Encephalartos manikensis | HowardHaMc1999
- Encephalartos pterogonus | HowardHaMc1999
- Encephalartos whitelockii | HowardHaMc1999
- Macrozamia | MillerDa2005
- Macrozamia lucida | Halber1998a
- Macrozamia miquelii | MuniapWaEv2012
- Macrozamia moorei | Stocks2013a
- Microcycas | MillerDa2005
- Microcycas calocoma | HowardHaMc1999
- Zamia integrifolia | HodgsoMa2001
- Zamia loddigesii | MuniapWaEv2012
Foes:
Families: 8 | Genera: 25
- Aphelinidae
- Ablerus | MarlerLiWa2021
- Aphytis lingnanensis | FloresCa2009
- Coccobius fulvus | HodgsoMa2001
- Encarsia | MarlerLiWa2021
- Encarsia diaspidicola | MarlerLiWa2021
- Pteroptrix | CaveNg2013
- Coccinellidae
- Chilocorus cacti | MarlerLiWa2021
- Chilocorus circumdatus | MarlerLiWa2021
- Chilocorus stigma | MarlerLiWa2021
- Cryptolaemus montrouzieri | MarlerLiWa2021
- Curinus coeruleus | MarlerLiWa2021
- Cycloneda sanguinea | MarlerLiWa2021
- Diomus austrinus | MarlerLiWa2021
- Exochomus childreni | MarlerLiWa2021
- Harmonia axyridis | MarlerLiWa2021
- Hippodamia convergens | MarlerLiWa2021
- Hyperaspis ornatella | MarlerLiWa2021
- Microweisea coccidivora | MarlerLiWa2021
- Olla v-nigrum | MarlerLiWa2021
- Phaenochilus kashaya | MarlerLiWa2021
- Rhyzobius lophanthae | HeuCh2000
- Zilus subtropicus | MarlerLiWa2021
- Cordycipitaceae
- Isaria fumosorosea | MarlerLiWa2021
- Cybocephalidae
- Cybocephalus | MarlerLiWa2021
- Cybocephalus binotatus | HodgsoMa2001
- Cybocephalus flavocapitis | MarlerLiWa2021
- Cybocephalus nipponicus | CaveNg2013
- Encyrtidae
- Arrhenophagus chionaspidis | CaveNg2013 MuniapWaEv2012 MarlerLiWa2021
- Eulophidae
- Aprostocetus | MarlerLiWa2021
- Aprostocetus purpureus | MarlerLiWa2021
- Heterorhabditidae
- Heterorhabditis bacteriophora | MarlerLiWa2021
- Heterorhabditis indicus | MarlerLiWa2021
- Heterorhabditis marelatus | MarlerLiWa2021
- Steinernematidae
- Steinernema feltiae | MarlerLiWa2021
Associates:
Families: 1 | Genera: 1
- Flavobacteriaceae
- Flavobacterium | RosenbSaSa2012
Geographic Distribution
Countries: 49
- Bahamas | MalumpMa2012
- Barbados | MalumpMa2012
- Bermuda | MuniapWaEv2012
- Bulgaria | TrenchTrTo2010 | PencheYo2016
- Cayman Islands | HodgsoMa2001 MillerDa2005 MuniapWaEv2012
- China | MillerDa2005
- Guangdong (=Kwangtung) | Tao1999
- Xianggang (=Hong Kong) | HodgsoMa2001 MillerDa2005
- Costa Rica | CaveNg2013 MalumpMa2012
- Cote d'Ivoire (=Ivory Coast) | MalumpMa2012
- Croatia | MastenSi2008
- Cyprus | UlgentHo2019
- Dominican Republic | PerezG2019
- Fiji | Thaman2018
- France | Germai2002
- French Guiana | WatsonKo2022a
- Germany | MalumpMa2012
- Guadeloupe | MalumpMa2012
- Guam | BaileyChLa2010 DelosoTeYu2020
- Guatemala | NormarNoVo2017
- Guiana | GermaiDeLa2016
- Hawaiian Islands | MillerDa2005
- Hawaii | Heu2002 HeuCh2000
- Oahu | Heu2002 HodgsoMa2001
- Honduras | JansenAl2023
- Hungary | KozarKoFe2013
- India | MalumpMa2012
- Indonesia
- Bali | MarlerLiWa2021
- Java | MuniapWaEv2012
- Sulawesi (=Celebes) | WatsonMuSh2014
- Timor | MarlerLiWa2021
- Kenya | MacharKiHe2021
- Malaysia | SuhJi2009
- Martinique | MalumpMa2012
- Mexico
- Campeche | NormarNoVo2017
- Chiapas | GonzalRiGa2016 NormarNoVo2017
- Guerrero | NormarNoVo2017
- Hidalgo | NormarNoVo2017
- Jalisco | NormarNoVo2017
- Queretaro | NormarNoVo2017
- Quintana Roo | NormarNoVo2017
- Sinaloa | NormarNoVo2017
- Veracruz | NormarNoVo2017
- Netherlands | MalumpMa2012
- New Zealand | MarlerLiWa2021
- Nigeria | DimkpaBaTo2021
- Northern Mariana Islands
- Rota Island | MarlerLiWa2021
- Palau | CaveNg2013
- Philippines | Suh2016
- Poland | LagowsGo2020
- Puerto Rico & Vieques Island
- Puerto Rico | HodgsoMa2001 MillerDa2005
- Saint Kitts and Nevis Islands
- Saint Kitts | MalumpMa2012
- Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | WatsonKo2022a
- Singapore | HodgsoMa2001 MillerDa2005
- Slovenia | PellizPo2014 Seljak2010
- South Africa | NesamaMiCo2015
- Suriname | JansenAl2023
- Taiwan | CaveNg2013 SuhJi2009
- Thailand | MillerDa2005 Takagi1977a
- Turkey | MarlerLiWa2021
- U.S. Virgin Islands | HodgsoMa2001 MillerDa2005
- United Kingdom | MalumpMa2012
- England | PellizPo2014
- United States
- Alabama | MalumpMa2012
- Florida | Halber1996b HowardWe2000 MillerDa2005
- Georgia | MalumpMa2012
- Louisiana | MalumpMa2012
- South Carolina | HodgsoMa2001
- Texas | FloresCa2009
- Vietnam | SuhJi2009
Keys
- JianXi2024: pp.595-597 ( Adult (F) ) [Aulacaspis from China]
- JoshiMoMe2023: pp.244-245 ( Adult (F) ) [Indian species of Aulacaspis]
- JoshiBhSa2023: pp.187 ( Adult (F) ) [Indian species of Aulacaspis]
- TianXi2022: pp.174-176 ( Adult (F) ) [Aulacaspis species from China]
- WeiJiZh2016: pp.18-22 ( Adult (F) ) [Aulacaspis from China]
- SuhJi2009: pp.1041-1043 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of armored scales intercepted on imported plants (slide mounted adult female)]
- MillerDa2005: pp.29 ( Adult (F) ) [Field Key to Economic Armored Scales]
- MillerDa2005: pp.20-21 ( Adult (F) ) [Armored Scales]
Remarks
- Systematics: GenBank accessions numbers: KX091233, KX091232
In the field, the scale of Aulacaspis yasumatsui resembles that of Pseudaulacaspis cockerelli, which is also common on cycads. However, a few characteristics distinguish the species: the color of the body of all stages and eggs of A. yasumatsui is orange, except the recently molted individuals, which are yellow, while the eggs and all stages of P. cockerelli are yellow. Also, A. yasumatsui has an expanded prosoma. Finally, scales of A. yasumatsui are more numerous on the abaxial surface of pinnae, while those of P. cockerelli are more numerous on the adaxial surface (Howard et al., 1999). A. yasumatsui included three cryptic species (4.0% to 4.5%). (Qin, et al., 2018) More studies are needed to determine whether this heterogeneity in A. yasumatsui is due to the existence of cryptic species, or differences in environmental factors or in the nutritional value between various host plants. Moreover, the scale’s endosymbiont diversity is influenced by diet, and more research is needed to determine whether A. yasumatsui endosymbiont diversity may influence its phenotype. (Marler, et al., 2021)
- Structure: Adult female body stout; prosoma rounded, at maturity its broader than postoma. Pygidium broad, little rounded. Derm remaining membranous except for pygidium and small sclerotized patches of cephalothorax (Takagi, 1977a).
- Biology: At temperatures of 24.5 C, eggs hatched in 8-12 days. In the field, some individuals developed to second instars in 16 days and third instars in 28 days. Mature females lay about 100 eggs. Most females did not live longer than 75 days (Howard et al., 1999). The cycad aulacaspis scale is a tropical or subtropical species and apparently continues to grow throughout the year. Howard et al. (1999) reported the time required from egg hatch to adult females was about 28 days at 25ºC. A series of clean plants was placed next to heavily infested plants and developmental times were recorded. In April the time required from first infestation to second instars was about 16 days and from second instars to adult females was about 12 days. A generation from infestation of experimental plants to the appearance of second-generation crawlers required slightly more than 41 days. Howard et al. (1999) infested a second set of clean plants in August and found that after 15 days of exposure to infested plants some individuals had reached second instars; adults comprised about 3/4 of the population after 21 days, and after 35 days most of the population consisted of mature females. Females can lay more than 100 eggs which hatch in 8 to 12 days. (Miller & Davidson, 2005). Data on the life history of A. yasumatsui in the laboratory were analyzed in Bailey, et al., 2010, using the age-stage, two-sex life table, to address variable development rates among individuals and between sexes. The egg incubation time was 7.26 days for both females and males and female nymphal development duration was 28.65 days. The development duration of male nymphal stages+pupal stage was 19 days. The total pre-oviposition period (TPOP) was 35.92 days. The maximum longevity of female adults was 67 days and 1 day for males. The intrinsic rate of increase (r) was 0.100 day-1, the finite rate of increase (ë) was 1.11 day-1, the net reproduction rate (Ro) was 111.51 offspring /individual, and the mean generation time (T) was 47.24 day. All developmental stages of A. yasumatsui occur on the roots (to a depth of 60cm), stems, fronds and cones of the host plant. The male tests are far more numerous and conspicuous than the adult female scale covers and are usually detected first. (Malumphy & Marquart, 2012)
- Economic Importance: No natural enemies have been observed in Florida (Howard et al., 1999). Aulacaspis yasumatsui is considered a pest of cycads in Thailand, but is kept under control by that country's parasitoids (Tang et al. 1997). This species is considered to be a serious pest of cycads in Florida and Hawaii. Since its original discovery in the southern part of Miami, Florida in 1996 (Halbert 1996) it spread to more than 20 counties in the state (1996 to 2000) and its continued spread seems inevitable. Its effect can be quite devastating. When Howard et al. (1999) conducted life-history experiments, they placed clean plants in close proximity to heavily infested plants; the clean plants were quickly infested with crawlers within 2 weeks. After a month the fronds of the previously clean plants showed a few chlorotic spots around the feeding scales, and within 270 days the plants were heavily desiccated and brown, and in a year they were dead. When a plant is heavily infested, both sides of the fronds are white because of the thick layers of scale bodies covering all parts of the host. Even after the scales die they adhere tightly to the host and are nearly impossible to remove from the frond surfaces. Another troublesome characteristic of this pest is that it infests subterranean portions of the plant and apparently uses these nearly "invisible" infestations as reservoirs for reinfestation when above ground populations are destroyed (Howard et al. 1999). In 1998, R. M. Baranowski and H. B. Glenn, University of Florida, Tropical Research & Education Center, Homestead, FL, collected a nitidulid predator, Cybocephalus binotatus Grouvelle, and an aphelinid parasite, Coccobius fulvus (Compere and Annecke), in Thailand and reared them in quarantine for about a year. Eventually these two natural enemies were released in Florida as biological control agents of the cycad aulacasps scale. In several instances, they have given excellent control of the pest, but in other situations their impact has been less noticeable (Howard, 2000, personal communication). They apparently are well established in Florida and have been released at over 40 different sites (Baranowski and Glenn 1999). (Miller & Davidson, 2005). In recent years, finds have also been reported in California, Georgia and Nevada. In 2006, severe outbreads were reported in south Texas. Since October 2006, the Coccinellid beetle, Rhyzobius lophanthae, has been found associated with infestations of cycad aulacaspis scale there, and in May 2009, the parasitic wasp, Aphytis lingnamensis was also found to be attacking the aulacaspis scale. (Flores & Carlson, 2009) It is now considered the single most important threat to wild cycad populations and conservation collections around the world. (Malumphy & Marquart, 2012) Legacy effects of A. yasumatsui infested plant litter deposited in the soil resulted in phytotoxic compounds that inhibited seedling emergence and plant growth. Scale-infested Cycas leaves should not be used as mulch or in compost until phytotoxic causal mechanisms are more fully understood. (Marler & Dongol, 2013)
- General Remarks: Best description and illustration by Takagi (1977a). A detailed review of the A. yasumatsu literature produced over the last four decades since the organism was described.can be found in the paper by Marler, et al. (2021)
Illustrations
Citations
- AlvareLiLu2020: phylogeny, 5
- AndersWuGr2010: phylogeny, taxonomy, 997-1003
- BaileyChLa2010: life history, 183-187
- CastilChJi2021: dispersal, distribution, illustration,
- CaveNg2013: biological control, distribution, economic importance, host, 1N-8N
- ChiuWu2001: DNA, taxonomy,
- DelosoTeYu2020: distribution, ecology, host, illustration,
- DimkpaBaTo2021: diagnosis, distribution, economic importance, illustration,
- EnglehCaGu2024: distribution, economic importance, history, host,
- FitaGeWa2021: phylogeny,
- FloresCa2009: biological control, economic importance, 489-492
- Frank2021: distribution, ecology, 3e
- Germai2002a: description, economic importance, host, life history, 43
- Germai2008: distribution, 81
- GermaiDeLa2016: host, list of species, 2
- GonzalRiGa2016: diagnosis, distribution, economic importance, host, illustration, 583-584
- Halber1996b: distribution, host, 4
- Halber2000: distribution, host, 3
- Heu2002: distribution, host, 8
- HeuCh2000: biological control, description, distribution, host, illustration, 1-2
- HodgesHoBu2003: biological control, chemical control, description, distribution,
- HodgsoMa2001: distribution, economic importance, host, taxonomy, 227-228
- HowardHaMc1999: chemical control, description, distribution, host, illustration, life history, 14-27
- HowardWe2000: biological control, distribution, host, life history, taxonomy, 243-245
- Hua2000: distribution, host, 149
- JansenAl2023: dispersal, host, 25,33
- JoshiBhSa2023: diagnosis, host plant, 184-186
- JoshiMoMe2023: distribution, host, key, 242
- KondoWa2022a: distribution, host, list, 14
- KozarKoFe2013: distribution, taxonomy, 54
- LagowsGo2020: distribution, 68
- LeeLeSe2024: natural enemies, 7
- MacharKiHe2021: distribution, economic importance, host, 4
- MalumpMa2012: description, distribution, economic importance, host, illustration, 147-154
- Marler2021: host,
- Marler2023: host,
- MarlerCa2018: chemistry, host, 497-504
- MarlerCr2023: economic importance,
- MarlerDo2013: ecology, economic importance, 1571-1573
- MarlerLa2012: dispersal, distribution, ecology, illustration,
- MarlerLiWa2021: control, distribution, economic importance, host, illustration, life history, natural enemies,
- MarlerMa2018: biological control, chemical ecology, natural enemies,
- MarlerTe2021: ecology, host,
- MarlerTe2023: ecology, illustration, importance,
- MartinLa2011: catalog, distribution, economic importance, host, 39
- MastenSi2008: catalog, distribution, host, 105-118
- Meurge2011: distribution, 80
- Miller2005: distribution, 485
- MillerDa2005: description, distribution, economic importance, host, 94
- MorseNo2006: phylogeny, taxonomy, 340
- MuniapWaEv2012: biological control, description, distribution, economic importance, host, illustration, 110-114
- NesamaMiCo2015: DNA, diagnosis, distribution, host, illustration, morphology, phylogenetics,
- NiuCaWe2023: genebank, phylogeny, 304, 310
- NormarNoGu2022: distribution, economic importance, 144
- NormarNoVo2017: diagnosis, distribution, economic importance, illustration, 187–193
- NormarOkMo2019: distribution, host, phylogeny, taxonomy, 14, 74, S6
- OuvrarKoGu2013: economic importance, 3
- PellizPo2014: distribution, 2
- PencheYo2016: distribution, economic importance, host, illustration, list of species, 19, 26
- PerezG2019: distribution, economic importance, host,
- PerezG2020: distribution, natural enemies,
- QinZhYu2018: DNA sequencing, ecology, natural enemies, taxonomy, 5-11
- RosenbSaSa2012: ecology, molecular data, physiology, 2357-2360
- SatishGe2020: disease transmission, radiation,
- Stocks2013a: biological control, distribution, host, illustration, natural enemies, 243, 352
- Suh2014: economic importance, 1
- Suh2016: distribution, host, key, 316, 325
- SuhJi2009: illustration, taxonomy, 1039-1054
- Takagi1977a: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 68-72
- Takagi2023a: biology, dispersal,
- TakagiDe2009: structure, 105
- TakagiDe2009: distribution, host, structure, taxonomy, 112
- Tang1986: distribution, host, 294
- Tao1999: distribution, host, 77
- TianXi2022: distribution, 174, 176
- TrenchTo2014: distribution, 69
- TrenchTrTo2010: distribution, host, 116,117
- UlgentErYa2022: distribution, host, S118
- WaltmaRaWi2016: distribution, 231
- Watson2001: list, 177
- Watson2002: taxonomy, 117
- Watson2002a: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy,
- Watson2021: distribution, 523
- WatsonMa2014: chemistry, economic importance, host, illustration, life history, structure, 1-7
- WatsonMuSh2014: distribution, host, 1595
- WatsonOu2021: dispersal, 152
- WeiJiZh2016: key, 20
- WeiZhZh2018: climate change, dispersal,
- ZarkanApTu2021: distribution, host, 163
