McClain, D.C. 1988 . Ecology of the San José Scale, Quadraspidiotus perniciosus (Comstock) (Homoptera: Diaspididae), and its Encarsia perniciosi (Howard) ... North Carolina State University, Ph.D. North Carlina 173 pp.

Notes: [Title continues: (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) Parasitoid in North Carolina Orchards. Ph.D. Thesis; G.C. Rock, Advisor.] Of the ten parasitoid species collected at an unsprayed experimental apple orchard in 1986 and 1987, and a sprayed commercial peach orchard in 1987, two species, Coccophagoides murtfeldtae (Howard) and Encarsia sp. were attracted to black traps significantly more than to other colors. Aphytis diaspidis (Howard) was attracted to yellow and black traps in significantly greater numbers than white at both orchards in 1987. Significantly greater numbers of E. perniciosi (Howard) were attracted to the combination of trap color plus San Jose scale (SJS) pheromone baited traps than to colored traps without pheromone indicating that SJS pheromone is a kairomone for the parasitoid. Data from constant temperature studies of E. perniciosi development were utilized to develop linear degree-day (DD) and nonlinear models of parasitoid development. Simulations based on the linear and nonlinear models were validated by comparison with peaks of adult parasitoid activity in three orchards during 1986 and 1987. Data from constant temperature studies of SJS development were utilized to develop linear (DD) and nonlinear models of scale development. The models were most accurate at simulating the first generation male flight peak when the overwintering male peak was used as biofix, second generation crawlers when a first generation crawler peak was used as biofix, and the first generation crawlers using overwintering male peaks as a biofix. The inaccuracy of the models to simulate first-generation crawler peaks for the two orchard-year combinations is thought to be due to the coexistence of crawlers of the Forbes scale, Quadraspidiotus forbesi (Johnson), along with SJS crawlers.