Valid Names Results
Fiorinia externa Ferris, 1942 (Diaspididae: Fiorinia)Nomenclatural History
- Fiorinia fioriniae japonica; Sasscer 1912b: 81. misidentification (discovered by Ferris1942, SIV-393).
- Fiorinia externa Ferris 1942: SIV-393. Type data: UNITED STATES: Maryland, Baltimore, on Tsuga sp., by H.S. McConnell. Syntypes, female, Type depository: Davis: The Bohart Museum of Entomology, University of California, California, USA; accepted valid name Illustr.
- Fiorinia extranea Ferris, 1942; Ferris 1942: SIV-446:55. misspelling of species epithet
- Fiorina externa; Frank 2021: 3. misspelling of genus name
Common Names
- elongate hemlock scale Stimme1979a
Ecological Associates
Hosts:
Families: 3 | Genera: 9
- Cupressaceae
- Juniperus chinensis | Tao1999
- Juniperus rigida | Tao1999
- Platycladus orientalis | Tao1999 | (= Biota orientalis)
- Pinaceae
- Abies | MillerDa2005 Muraka1970
- Abies fraseri | Stimme1979a
- Abies koreana | VenettAmAu2024
- Abies sachalinensis | Muraka1970 | var. mayriana
- Cedrus | MillerDa2005
- Cedrus atlantica | VenettAmAu2024
- Cedrus deodara | Tao1999
- Picea | MillerDa2005 Stimme1979a
- Picea abies | VenettAmAu2024
- Picea pungens | VenettAmAu2024
- Pinus | DanzigPe1998 MillerDa2005
- Pseudotsuga | MillerDa2005
- Pseudotsuga menziesii | Stimme1979a
- Tsuga | MillerDa2005 Sassce1912b
- Tsuga canadensis | Stimme1979a
- Tsuga caroliniana | TaleriMcGa1967
- Tsuga diversifolia | TaleriMcGa1967
- Tsuga sieboldii | Takagi1963d
- Taxaceae
- Taxus | DanzigPe1998 MillerDa2005
Foes:
Families: 14 | Genera: 24
- Aphelinidae
- Aphytis aonidiae | UrbinaAh2022
- Aphytis moldavicus | AbellGwNo2016 Japosh1998
- Encarsia | DavidsMc1958 | (= Prospaltella)
- Encarsia brimblecombei | JaposhAbNo2013
- Encarsia citrina | AbellGwNo2016 Koszta1996 TaleriMcGa1967 | (= Aspidiotiphagus citrinus)
- Encarsia guerrierii | AbellGwNo2016 JaposhAbNo2013
- Encarsia normarki | AbellGwNo2016 JaposhAbNo2013
- Encarsia schmidti | AbellGwNo2016 JaposhAbNo2013
- Clavicipitaceae
- Beauveria bassiana | UrbinaAh2022
- Conoideocrella luteorostrata | UrbinaAh2022
- Coccinellidae
- Chilocorus renipustulatus | Cowles2010 UrbinaAh2022 | (= Chilocorus kuwanae)
- Chilocorus stigma | TaleriMcGa1967
- Harmonia axyridis | UrbinaAh2022
- Rhyzobius lophanthae | UrbinaAh2022
- Zilus horni | XieLaLy2008 | (= Scymnillus horni)
- Coniopterygidae
- Coniopterix | UrbinaAh2022
- Conwentzia pineticola | UrbinaAh2022
- Cordycipitaceae
- Cordyceps | UrbinaAh2022
- Lecanicillium lecanii | UrbinaAh2022
- Cybocephalidae
- Cybocephalus nipponicus | UrbinaAh2022
- Encyrtidae
- Arrhenophagus albitibiae | JaposhAbNo2013
- Arrhenophagus chionaspidis | AbellGwNo2016 JaposhAbNo2013
- Thomsonisca noyesi | AbellGwNo2016 JaposhAbNo2013
- Glomerellaceae
- Colletotrichum | MarcelGoPa2009
- Colletotrichum fioriniae | UrbinaAh2022
- Hemerobiidae
- Hemerobius stigma | UrbinaAh2022
- Herpotrichiellaceae
- Phialophora | UrbinaAh2022
- Miridae
- Atractotomus magnicornis | UrbinaAh2022
- Phytocoris | UrbinaAh2022
- Mycosphaerellaceae
- Mycosphaerella | UrbinaAh2022
- Myriangiales
- Myriangium | UrbinaAh2022
- Nectriaceae
- Fusarium | UrbinaAh2022
- Nectria | UrbinaAh2022
Geographic Distribution
Countries: 5
- Canada | Koszta1996
- China
- Japan | Tao1999
- Honshu | Takagi1963d
- Shikoku | Takagi1963d
- United Kingdom | MillerDa2005
- United States
- Connecticut | DavidsMc1958 MillerDa2005
- Delaware | VenettAmAu2024
- District of Columbia | MillerDa2005 TaleriMcGa1967
- Georgia | Stimme1979a
- Kentucky | VenettAmAu2024
- Maine | VenettAmAu2024
- Maryland | Ferris1942 MillerDa2005
- Massachusetts | MillerDa2005 TaleriMcGa1967
- Michigan | VenettAmAu2024
- New Hampshire | VenettAmAu2024
- New Jersey | DavidsMc1958 MillerDa2005
- New York | MillerDa2005 Sassce1912b
- North Carolina | VenettAmAu2024
- Ohio | DavidsMc1958 MillerDa2005
- Pennsylvania | DavidsMc1958 MillerDa2005
- Rhode Island | MillerDa2005 Stimme1979a
- Rhode Island | VenettAmAu2024
- South Carolina | VenettAmAu2024
- Tennessee | VenettAmAu2024
- Vermont | VenettAmAu2024
- Virginia | MillerDa2005 TaleriMcGa1967
- West Virginia | VenettAmAu2024
Keys
- AhmedMoRo2021: pp.156-158 ( First instar Second instar (F) Second instar (M) ) [Fiorinia in the USA]
- LiuCaFe2020: pp.397-399 ( Adult (F) ) [Fiorinia in China]
- Hodgso2020: pp.146-147 ( Adult (M) ) [Diaspididae]
- WatsonWiMi2015: pp.298-299 ( Adult (F) ) [Fiorinia in the Australasian, Nearctic and Neotropical Regions]
- WeiZhFe2013: pp.94-95 ( ) [Key to the adult females of Fiorinia species known from China]
- Malump2013: pp.274 ( Adult (F) ) [Fiorinia found in Britain]
- MillerDa2005: pp.29 ( Adult (F) ) [Field Key to Economic Armored Scales]
- MillerDa2005: pp.20-22 ( Adult (F) ) [Armored Scales]
- Koszta1996: pp.501 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of Fiorinia of Northeastern North America]
- Matile1990: pp.206 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to females]
- Matile1990: pp.207 ( Adult (M) ) [Clé des larves mâles du stade II]
- Howell1977: pp.836 ( First instar ) [Key to the first instars of Fiorinia]
- Ferris1942: pp.SIV-446:55 ( Adult (F) ) [Key to species of Fiorinia of California]
Remarks
- Systematics: Genbank CO1-SP: 883907, EF1a:: 893442, 28S-3P: 883848 plus 4 other sequences in Ahmed, et al., 2021.
- Structure: Female scale covered almost entirely of the sclerotized and elongate 2nd exuviae, pale yellow or slightly reddish brown, exuviae more or less translucent. Scale is peculiar in that the 1st exuviae is exceedingly thin and transparent and seems ordinarily to be detached from the 2nd, to which it is connected only by a thin film of wax. Adult female about 1 mm long. Derm membranous throughout except for the pygidium (Ferris, 1942).
- Biology: Ferris (1942) states that this species is undoubtedly an introduction into the western hemisphere. Fiorinia externa has one or more generations per year, depending on location. Two generations are reported from Connecticut and Maryland, but only one from New York (Talerico et al., 1967). Insect is found on host needles and new cones (Kosztarab, 1996). Additional extensive biological information by McClure (1978). The biology and ecology of this species have been studied extensively by Mark McClure of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station. He found that the species has 1 generation and a partial second in Connecticut (McClure 1978); most individuals in the second generation perish during the winter months. Overwintering takes place as eggs within the pupillarial female or as fully mature adult females. Seasonal development of the species varies considerably depending on the climate. At two localities in Connecticut, McClure found a difference of 3 to 4 weeks in crawler activity. At Westport, Connecticut, crawlers appeared in May, second instars were present in June, adult males and females were present in early July. Species of Tsuga are the preferred hosts for this pest. According to Davidson and McComb (1958) the elongate hemlock scale has 2 generations a year in Maryland with crawler production peaks occurring in spring and fall. Heller (1977) reported 2 generations a year in Pennsylvania. Stimmel (1980) found multiple overlapping generations in Pennsylvania with eggs, second-instar males and females, and adult females present during the winter. Wallner (1964) reported one complete and one partial generation a year on Long Island. Monthly observations have shown adult females overwinter and active crawlers are present throughout the warm months (May October) indicating overlapping generations. Unlike most armored scales, members of this genus live as adult females within the enlarged shed skin of the second instar. As the adult female shrinks inside the second shed skin, eggs are laid in two rows with their ends meeting in the median longitudinal axis of the shed skin. The average number of eggs found behind one female at one time is 6; as these hatch more are laid. Females lay up to 20 eggs over a period of 1 to 1 ½ weeks. Eggs hatch in 3 4 weeks. Crawlers molt into second instars in 3 4 weeks. In 4 more weeks adult females appear. These mate with males and begin producing second-generation eggs 6 8 weeks later. Crawlers from these eggs produce the overwintering generation. McClure (1980b) reports a direct positive correlation between the concentration of nitrogen in young foliage and the rate of mortality and number of progeny produced by female elongate hemlock scales. (Miller & Davidson, 2005). The continuous development of F. externa in the United States is the most striking difference between results of this study and previously described conditions in Japan, where the scale is native and has synchronized life stages and generations (McClure, 1986). Abell & Van Driesche (2012) suggest that synchrony between F. externa and E. citrina is not possible in the United States and consequently, E. citrina alone will not control the scale. Control in the United States may still be possible by locating and identifying other parasitoid species in Japan that attack other life stages or that differ phenologically from E. citrina.
- Economic Importance: Miller & Davidson (1990) list this insect as a pest. Murakami (1970) states that Fiorinia externa is "undoubtedly an invader in North America from Japan." Needles of infested host become yellow and drop early (Kosztarab, 1996). Additional information by McClure (1978). In Connecticut, the elongate hemlock scale is reported to cause death of trees of various sizes both in natural and ornamental situations (McClure 1977c). The insects occur on the undersides of leaves and remove fluids from the internal mesophyll cells. Feeding eventually causes chlorosis, early leaf drop, decreased growth, and death in heavy infestations. Economic populations have been reported in CT, MD, and PA. This species is considered to be a serious pest in Pennsylvania, particularly on Abies Christmas trees (Stimmel, 2002, personal communication). McClure (1977c) reports heavy parasitism in several instances. Because crawlers occur throughout much of the summer, control with contact insecticides is relatively ineffective. Use of foliar systemic insecticides has proven to be quite effective as have "superior" dormant oils (Wallner 1964). In Japan this species is apparently not an economic problem (Murakami 1970). Miller and Davidson (1990) consider this species to be an occasional pest. (Miller & Davidson, 2005). Scale populations start on small trees, which are probablyuninfested at the time of planting followed by several years of exponential population growth until the time of sale. This pattern should be of great concern to "choose and cut" Christmas tree growers, because the practice of replanting next to fresh stumps maximizes the likelihood that scale populations will disperse to the newly planted trees from neighboring large, heavily infested trees. A bark spray of dinotefuran provided an effective way to treat Xhristmas trees and reduce armored scale populations while not adversely affecting predator and parasitoid populations. (Cowles, 2010) The predator, Scymnillus horni prefers to feed on male scales in all developmental stages. (Xie, et al., 2008) The fungus Colletotrichum acutatum var. fioriniae isolated from infected F. externa adults recovered from several localities in the North East US hemlock forests was highly pathogenic to this insect host, particularly in the crawler stage. (Marcelino, et al., 2009)
- General Remarks: Best description and illustration by Ferris (1942). Malumphy, 2013, states that the scale is no longer present in the U.K.
Illustrations
Citations
- AbellGwNo2016: biological control, ecology, 7-17
- AbellVa2012: biological control, distribution, ecology, host, 339-347
- Ahmed2018b: distribution, host, 1
- AhmedMoRo2021: DNA, diagnosis, distribution, illustration, key, taxonomy, 141-161
- AndersWuGr2010: phylogeny, taxonomy, 997
- Arnett1985: economic importance, 241
- Baker1972: distribution, host, 111
- Balach1954e: taxonomy, 303
- Borchs1966: catalog, distribution, host, taxonomy, 143
- BrownMc1962: taxonomy, 165
- Cowles2010: biological control, chemical control, life history, 1735-1743
- DanzigPe1998: catalog, distribution, host, taxonomy, 259
- DarrCoJe2022: biology, control, distribution, economic importance, 10
- Davids1974: chemical control, distribution, host, 3
- DavidsMc1958: biological control, chemical control, distribution, host, illustration, life history, 405-406
- Ferris1942: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, SIV-393, SIV-446: 55
- Frank2021: ecology, life history, natural enemies, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8
- GarretLa1969: description, distribution, economic importance, host, life history, taxonomy, 1221-1222
- GondaKRaPr2012: ecology, 523-531
- Heller1977: taxonomy, 2
- HertinSi1972: biological control, 180
- Hodgso2020: illustration, key, 145, 146
- Howell1977: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 829-831
- Hua2000: distribution, host, 151
- JaposhAbNo2013: ecology, 541-554
- JohnsoLy1976: distribution, economic importance, host, 86
- Kawai1972: distribution, taxonomy, 39
- Kawai1977: distribution, host, 156
- Kawai1980: distribution, taxonomy, 281
- KondoWa2022a: distribution, host, list, 16
- Koszta1963: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 81-82
- Koszta1996: biological control, description, distribution, economic importance, host, illustration, life history, taxonomy, 502-503
- KozarWa1985: catalog, distribution, 83
- LambdiGrRe2008: distribution, 232
- LeeLeSe2024: natural enemies, 7
- LiuCaFe2020: key, 398
- Malump2013: distribution, host, 273
- MarcelGiGo2008: biological control, 37-38
- MarcelGoPa2009: biological control, 1-9
- MarcelGoPa2009a: biological control, 2-11
- Matile1990: description, taxonomy, 206, 207
- McClur1977: biological control, chemical control, distribution, economic, importance, taxonomy, 480
- McClur1977a: chemical control, distribution, life history, taxonomy, 539-544
- McClur1977c: biological control, distribution, host, taxonomy, 551-555
- McClur1978: biological control, distribution, host, taxonomy, 863
- McClur1979: biological control, distribution, host, life history, taxonomy, 25-36
- McClur1979a: biological control, distribution, host, life history, taxonomy, 33-40
- McClur1979b: biological control, distribution, host, life history, taxonomy, 869-873
- McClur1980: biological control, distribution, host, taxonomy, 72-79
- McClur1980a: distribution, host, taxonomy, 1391-1401
- McClur1981: biological control, distribution, host, taxonomy, 47-54
- McClur1983b: distribution, host, taxonomy, 1811-1815
- McClurFe1977: distribution, host, taxonomy, 807-811
- McClurHa1984: distribution, host, life history, 185-193
- McCombDa1969: distribution, host, 2
- Miller2005: distribution, 487
- MillerDa1990: economic importance, taxonomy, 302
- MillerDa2005: description, distribution, economic importance, host, 200
- MillerDe2018: history, 7
- MillerKo1979: taxonomy, 4, 6, 8
- MorseNo2006: phylogeny, taxonomy, 340
- Muraka1970: distribution, host, 89
- Nakaha1982: distribution, 36
- NielseJo1973: taxonomy, 39
- NormarOkMo2019: distribution, host, phylogeny, taxonomy, 21, 68
- Pedgle1982: distribution, host, 90
- PooleGe1997: distribution, 348
- RauppHoSa2001: chemical control, host, 204
- Sassce1912b: distribution, host, taxonomy, 81-82
- Savos1979: chemical control, distribution, 2
- Schrea1970: chemical control, distribution, 20
- SoltisGoGo2015: ecology,
- Stimme1979a: chemical control, description, distribution, host, illustration, life history, taxonomy, 13-14
- Stimme1980: distribution, host, life history, 701-705
- Stocks2016a: description, distribution, economic importance, 785-787
- Stoetz1976: taxonomy, 323
- Takagi1963d: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 115-117
- Takagi1979: physiology, 28
- Takaha1952a: taxonomy, 13
- TaleriMcGa1967: biological control, description, distribution, host, illustration, life history, taxonomy, 1-4
- Tang1986: distribution, host, 283
- Tao1999: distribution, 86
- Tippin1970a: description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy, 95, 98
- UrbinaAh2022: entomopathogenic fungi, natural enemies,
- VenettAmAu2024: distribution, host,
- Wallne1978: distribution, economic importance, 98
- WeiZhFe2013: taxonomy, 94-95
- Westco1973: distribution, host, taxonomy, 407
- XieLaLy2008: biological control, 205-211
