Lambdin, P.L., Aquino, G., Green, J.F., & Soto-Hernández, M. 2002 Synopsis of carmine acid biosynthesis.. CACTUSNET NEWSLETTER (FAO International Technical Cooperation on Cactus) No. 7: 11-15.

Notes: Carminic acid is a natural dye produced by cochineal insects (Dactylopius spp.), a family of scale insects that feed on cactus (i.e. Opuntia ficus-indica). This scale insect species, native to North and South America, has been used commercially worldwide as a natural red dye source since the 16th century when General Cortez shipped the dye to Spain in 1536. Carmine dye became the dominant dye source used in food, medicine, and textile products until it was eventually replaced by aniline dyes. With the number of aniline dyes shrinking as a result of decertification by government agencies due to carcinogenic and mutagenic effects, attention is being directed to natural dyes as viable substitutes, including carmine dye. This paper reviews the attempts to chemically synthesize the dye in order to improve the expensive and time-consuming natural production process.