Gullan, P.J., & Kosztarab, M.P. 1997 Adaptations in scale insects.. Annual Review of Entomology 42: 23-50.

Notes: Many unusual features of scale insects (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) can be explained as historical legacy. Developmental specializations in ancestral coccoids resulted in a neotenous adult female and a drastic metamorphosis of the male. Subsequent evolution led to numerous, often convergently derived, adaptations to parasitic life on higher plants. Discussions of morphological adaptations in females and males, reproductive strategies, life-cycle adaptations, biotic interactions and suggested future research.